Total precipitation for the entirety of the monsoon period also displays a decreasing trend, suggesting an overall weakening of the monsoon that is also consistent with other findings for the region.Thus it can be concluded that the local climate of Wayanad is experiencing changes in the monsoon that are consistent with the broader region. While canopy trees can reduce annual yields of coffee and other crops, integrated multi-species systems are very likely to be more resilient to climate change in the near future. According to Prasanth one of the farmers interviewed during this study, while a full sun monoculture of robusta coffee in Kerala will yield approximately 900 kg / acre, a shade-grown system will yield only 700 kg / acre. However, inter cropping with canopy trees provides cooler air temperatures, which is likely to protect under story crops such as coffee from future heat waves. Shade trees have been shown to decrease leaf temperature of coffee plants by up to 4˚C in sub-optimally hot conditions . In addition, shade creates cooler soil temperatures, which increases microbial and mycorrhizal activity. This in turn increases uptake of nutrients in crop plants, which promotes better plant health and can increase yields . A robust canopy layer has also been shown to decrease both soil evaporation and crop transpiration, which can substantially increase soil moisture available for crops to use during photosynthesis . Canopy layers also reduce precipitation velocity, which reduces erosion and crop damage . If adopted at a large enough scale, reinstating a living canopy layer across Kerala is likely to be the state’s single most effective strategy for agricultural resilience in the face of climate change. Shade trees can also provide supplemental income to buffer or even surpass coffee yield losses, if commodity-producing trees are used. Shade trees well suited for coffee agroforestry in Kerala include rubber,mango , areca nut , teak , silver oak , and jackfruit . It has been recently suggested that mango trees are particularly well suited for growth alongside coffee due to their tendency to draw water from the deeper subsoil level, thereby reducing competition for water, as coffee draws the majority of its water from the topsoil layer .

Studies indicate that optimal shade levels for coffee production are approximately 20-40%, however this can vary based on local ecological and economic conditions . If species are selected carefully based on local conditions, shade trees can provide substantial economic synergies to coffee agroforestry systems. In conjunction with a canopy layer, additional crop species can be utilized to increase farm productivity-per-acre.The pepper plant, which is a vine, can be made to grow using the shade trees for support. Pepper also has a different harvest season than coffee, which is a useful synergy from a logistic perspective. An under story of turmeric, ginger, and other spices can be planted as well, or alternatively an under story of nitrogen-fixing cover crops to increase soil fertility.Building soil health, which for these purposes can be translated to increasing soil carbon content, water holding capacity, and microbial richness, can significantly buffer a farmer’s vulnerability to economic and environmental uncertainties. An increasing number of studies suggest that the single best metric for long-term soil fertility is carbon content. While fertilization with synthetic nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium compounds can lead to short-term yield boosts, building organic content in soil vastly improves long-term yields by increasing water retention, reducing erosion, and building healthy microbial ecosystems. . A review paper encompassing a multitude of crop species in agricultural systems across the globe concluded that soils with higher carbon content consistently produced higher yields, especially in dry years . Soil carbon content can be increased by mulching, composting, or cover cropping. All of these practices require little to no technology and can be implemented at very low cost to the farmer. Organic matter can be added to soils in the form of manure, crop residues, or waste pulp from coffee processing. In Kerala, these products are often dried and burned for use as cooking fuel. However, some products, most notably coffee pulp, often goes to waste. Art Donnelly, founder of the Estufa Finca project, has invented a low-cost cooking stove that uses a dualchambered, oxygen-restricted combustion system to burn organic coffee waste products in a way that produces both a clean-burning cooking flame and carbonrich charcoal, or biochar. This charcoal can be applied to fields directly, and a number of studies find this application to boost both microbial activity and crop yields . The biochar can also be fermented to produce a microberich fertilizer. This process is also low-cost and low-tech. A 2017 account of a Costa Rican farmer named Echeverría describes the process: “This low-tech microbial inoculant employs a sourdough-like starter to brew up a bio-fertilizer rich in mycorrhyzal fungi.

To get it going, Echeverría collects a bag full of organic matter from the forest floor, making sure that it contains white fungal hyphae. Next, she removes all the big leaves and mixes it up with rice bran and molasses. She then covers it with a plastic bag in 60-liter, screw-top containers and lets it ferment for a month and a half.” . An account of Gabriel Umaña, an agent for the Costa Rica Ministry of Agriculture,stacking flower pot tower attests that application of fermented biochar even “synchronizes maturity among coffee bushes. This helps farmers with a major logistical problem, as coffee beans must be sold when ripe.” . Notably, biochar relies on the synthesis of carbon-based plant matter via photosynthesis, and the process of incomplete combustion returns a portion of this carbon to the soil. As such, it is the only known form of energy production that is net carbon negative. In addition to building soil carbon content, employing no-till farming practices, robust mulching or cover cropping, and diverse crop rotations are essential to promoting soil health. Frequent tillage has been shown to result in decreased soil carbon and loss of fertility . Covering the soil surface with mulch, cover crops, or other organic residues has been proven to conserve soil moisture and reduce erosion . Surface mulch from crop residues has been shown to affect crop yields due to its variety of physical, chemical, and biological impacts on soil characteristics . Long-term studies have shown that agricultural practices that combine crop rotations, consistent surface residue, and reduced tillage result in soils with higher levels of carbon and nitrogen . Crop rotation is also associated with increased microbial diversity in soils, which in turn reduces risk of pest outbreaks due to natural biological control mechanisms . Through MSSRF, the State of Kerala’s Ministry of Agriculture already provides stipends to farmers to keep native species of shade trees on their properties. In addition, a separate Tree Stipend Program has recently been developed that engages the private sector. In this program, the government sponsors banks to give financial support to farmers who plant trees. In exchange for the initial investment to plant the trees, the banks then own the assets associated with the value of the tree on the farmer’s property, much like a lien. However, these programs should be provided much more funding. According to Prasanth, a typical stipend to keep a rosewood tree is approximately 700 rupees per year , whereas the profits from cutting the tree and harvesting its timber is closer to 70,000 rupees . As such, the tree stipends should be increased by at least two orders of magnitude in order to be a policy that is effective at retaining participants. In lieu of providing frivolous crop insurance payouts that subsidize bad farming practices, it is recommended to incentivize practices that build topsoil and increase soil carbon content.

During the course of this study, soil carbon content was found to be the single most applicable metric correlated with sustainable and resilient farming practices. Establishing simple incentives based on a single metric reduces organizational costs for the governing body, while simultaneously encouraging a diverse array of carbon-sequestering farming practices that work synergistically to build economic and climate resilient agriculture. Measuring soil carbon content is low-effort and low-cost, and the monitoring efforts that would be required to award financial incentives responsibly are likely to be fairly cost-effective relative to other similar incentive efforts. This policy could be achieved through subsidies, stipends, or other incentive measures. In order for any of these policies to be effective, awareness and education must be brought directly to the farmers. Studies indicate that one of the most effective methods to encourage the adoption of new farming practices is the establishment of full-scale demonstration farms within the agricultural communities . MSSRF’s Botanical Garden presents a fortuitous opportunity in Kerala, as it is already established, staffed, and well known within the community. This would be an excellent location to establish a pilot program for carbon farming workshops, in which information and hands-on lessons about regenerating topsoil and soil carbon can be provided. If successful, these demonstration farms could be replicated in other communities. In an effort to increase consumer awareness of the current state of the coffee commodity market and its effects on smallholder producers, an amended version of the Introduction section of this report is being published and distributed among coffee shops in the San Diego area, along with a link to the full report. In addition to the article, a list of San Diego coffee shops that implement ethical coffee purchasing practices is included, to promote awareness of socially responsible coffee companies. The publication encourages consumers to support importers with business models that don’t undermine the livelihoods of producers and the ecosystems that sustain them. Engaging consumers in a way that changes their preferences is one of the most effective ways to enact change in market economies.In addition to consumer outreach for the sake of increasing awareness, a fundraising effort was established to support the M. S. Swaminathan Research Fund and the work they are doing to improve conditions for farmers in Kerala. During the month of July 2019, a portion of the proceeds from merchandise sold at Bird Rock Coffee Roasters will go to MSSRF. This partnership represents an easily replicable business model for any coffee business that wants to connect consumers with producers in a way that builds resilience and ethical practices into their supply chain.