Tag: farming

Cash contribution significantly influenced farm productivity of the cocoa-based farming households.This implies that a naira increase in the amount contributed, increased farm productivity by 1.007 kg/₦.Farmers’ cash commitment in many social groups enhance their access to loans, which increases their farm productivity.Since the additive form of social capital improves farm productivity of the households, there is a need to investigate the endogeneity effect of social capital on the economic outcome.The introduction of multiplicative social capital variable in the third column of Table 6 lays the foundation for further investigation on the endogeneity effect of social capital.The inclusion of this variable led to slight improvement in Chi2 of 45.36 compared to the baseline model.This result is similar to the findings of Agboola et al..Along with the social-economic/demographic variables, aggregate social capital significantly influenced the farm productivity of cocoa-based farming households where a unit increase in aggregate social capital increased productivity by 0.513 kg/₦.This implies that participation in social groups enhances members’ welfare, including farm productivity.However, accounting for strong bi-directional causality between social capital and farm productivity , using the aggregate social capital model, the original social capital was replaced by an instrumental variable.This choice was guided by correlation and Sargan result of the instrumental variables with the social capital and farm productivity, as suggested by Okunmadewa et al., Omonona et al., Balogun and Yusuf , Adepoju and Oni , and Balogun et al..The instrumental variable leads to a higher coefficient for the social capital than in the actual social capital model.This implies that the direct effect of social capital outweighs the reverse effect.

A unit increase in the instrumented social capital would increase household’s farm productivity by 0.577 kg/₦.Nevertheless, accounting for linear interaction of social capital with unobservables,ebb flow tray the coefficient decreases to 0.218.This result is adopted, because it takes into account the interactions between social capital and the unobservable effect on farm productivity.Based on the result, social capital is endogenous to farm productivity and it should be explored among people of similar characteristics in order to improve their productivity.Thus, social capital is an important factor in improving cocoa farming households’ farm productivity in Southwestern, Nigeria.The basic model is shown in the first column of Table 7.The rationale behind this model is to examine the food security of the households while they are not involved in social capital activities.The Chi2 value showed the econometric modelling is appropriate and correctly specified.This implies that a unit increase in age of household head decreased their food security by 0.394 calories.This is because old household heads’ farm productivity decline as they grow older, which impacts negatively on their households’ food security.Household size significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.This implies that an additional member to the households decreased the food security status by 0.527 calories.This is because large households put pressure on household resources including food.Illiteracy significantly decreased the food security by 0.775 calories.However, primary and secondary education significantly increased households’ food security by 0.512 and 0.551 calories, respectively.This could be attributed to the fact that education provides farmers with knowledge of food groups, which eventually improves their food security.Farm size was positive and significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.A unit increase in farm size increased the food security by 0.834 calories.This is because resources and cultivation on large farms can increase food production.Farm productivity significantly influenced food security of the cocoabased farming households.

The implication of this is that a unit increase in the output of farmers increased the food security status by 0.307 calories.This is because increase in farm productivity can increase a household’s propensity to consume more through increased food production or by having income available to buy food at any time.Savings significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.The implication of this is that a naira increase in savings of the households increased the food security by 0.125 calories.This is because households may adjust to continual lack of access to credit and save money to improve their food security.The model suggests that households’ social-economic characteristics, farm specifics and credit variables play a significant role in improving food security in the study area.The second column of Table 7 shows the inclusion of six additive forms of social capital variables identified in this study.These include density of membership, decision making, cash contribution, labour contribution, meeting attendance and heterogeneity.The rationale behind the model is to examine the food security of the households while they are involved in social capital activities.This new model has a better food security level as reflected in the Chi2 of 45.50.This suggests that household food security improves as households become involved in the affairs of their social groups.This model shows that the effect of social capital on food security is traceable to meeting attendance, decision making, membership density and cash contribution.Meeting attendance significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.The implication of this is that a unit increase in attendance of meetings increased the food security of farmers by 0.269 calories.This is due to the fact that participants who recurrently attended group meetings have access to farming and entrepreneurial abilities to improve their farm productivity, which improves their food security status.Decision making index significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.The implication of this is that a unit increase in participation of household members in the decision of the group increased the food security by 0.819 calories.This is because farmers who participated actively in decision making of the social groups are well situated to enjoy the benefits of their association, which improves their food security.Cash contribution significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.The implication of this is that a naira increase in the amount contributed to their social groups increased food security by 0.401 calories.

Farmers’ cash commitment in many social groups enhance their access to loan for consumption purposes, thereby resulting in improved food security.Membership density significantly influenced food security of the cocoa-based farming households.The implication of this is that a unit increase in the number of social groups a farmer belongs to, increases food security by 0.161 calories.As individuals increase the number of groups, they have active participation; the probability of accessing loans for consumption purpose in many groups is high, thereby resulting in improved food security.Since the additive form of social capital improves the food security of the households, there is a need to investigate the endogeneity effect of social capital on the economic outcome.The introduction of multiplicative social capital variable in the third column of Table 7 lays the foundation for investigation into the endogeneity effect of social capital.The inclusion of this variable led to slight improvement in the Chi2 of 48.91.This result is similar to the finding of Agboola et al..Along with the social-economic/demographic variables, aggregate social capital significantly influenced the food security of cocoa-based farming households.The implication of this is that a unit increase in aggregate social capital increased the food security of the farmers by 0.807 calories.This implies that participation in social groups enhances members’ welfare including food security.However, accounting for strong bi-directional causality between social capital and food security using the aggregate social capital model, the original social capital was replaced by an instrumental variable.The instrumental variable method leads to a bit higher coefficient for the social capital than in the actual social capital model.This implies that the direct effect of social capital outweighs the reverse effect in the explanation of the correlation between the two variables.A unit increase in the instrumented social capital would increase the food security of households by 0.861 calories.However, with the control for linear interactions of social capital with unobservables, the coefficient reduced.This result is adopted, because it takes into account the interactions between social capital and the unobservables in its effect on food security.Based on the result, social capital is endogenous to food security and should be explored among people of similar characteristics in order to improve their food security status.Thus, social capital is an important factor in improving the cocoa farming households’ food security in Southwestern, Nigeria.The instrumental variable approach is the most efficient way to account for all forms of endogeneity, provided suitable instruments are identified.However,flood and drain tray the necessary condition is that the proposed instrument must be correlated with the endogenous explanatory variable, but uncorrelated with the dependent variable and error term.On the basis of correlation analysis, two instruments such as length of residency and membership in ethnic group were identified.

The next challenge is identifying a suitable instrument satisfying sufficient conditions of the Sargan test of over identification.In this regard, Sargan standard over-identification test for validation of the instruments was carried out.The satisfying condition is that the instrument’s p value must exceed significance values of 0.1, to be a valid instrument.The Sargan result of over-identification test is presented in Table 8 and only length of residency is reported to be a valid instrument, because its p value exceeds significance values of 0.1.Thus, on the basis of correlation and Sargan analyses, length of residency was selected to address the endogeneity issue from participation in social networks.Therefore, our estimates on the impact of social capital on farm productivity and food security is unbiased and consistent.Kalimantan Island frequently named as “Borneo” has its original inhabitants which so-called Dayak.According to Ukur , the Dayak tribe is divided into seven races or ethnics and grouped into 405 sub-ethnics which are spread in various areas in the world’s third largest island by the width of 743,330 km2.The grouping of Dayak ethnics and sub-ethnics is based on the similarity of place of residence and language while for custom, art, and culture are more or less the same.Based on this grouping, according to Nieuwenhuis , a Dutch medical doctor and a botanist, mapped the residence of various Dayak ethnics in Borneo until the end of the 19th century.At that time, the distribution of the Dayak people was mapped based on their residence and the characteristic of homogeneous society that can be seen through its clans and organization system.There has not been much significant movement of population from one region to another.Therefore, the Dayak people in the pre-20th century lived in groups and settled according to their respective territories so that they were the rulers of their regions.Reviewing from the livelihood system, as an effort to meet food for daily needs, the life of the Dayak people has been polarized with a system of “farming”.Farming means a system of shifting cultivation from one plot of land to another.Usually the field cleared by slashing, cutting, and burning the forest system without destroying the forest and the surrounding environment.That is what so-called by “system” that is the existence of a local wisdom and values behind it.This is not only the value of wisdom and the way to sustain life, but there are other values implied such as togetherness, compassion, mutual cooperation, arts, as well as ritual and spiritual aspects in the entire cycles of farming in the Dayak community.The treatment of indigenous peoples has gradually evolved, beginning with views of natives as endangered, followed by targeted assimilation and civilizing missions, protectionism and an ethical duty of care, and finally leading to discourses of rights and recognition.To comply with the needs of their daily lives, Dayak people maintain the system order and natural systems and their environment as stipulated in Customary or Adat Law.Acts of destructing and polluting the environment whether intentionally or unintentionally will be subject to sanctions to the doer.For instance, if anyone burns a field and the fire spreads to neighboring lands, he will receive a customary sanction or adat fine.Similarly, if people do fishing using poison , it can kill fish massively, then the doers will also be subject to customary sanctions.Thus, it is clear that the Dayak people place the environment and nature as an integral part of the whole series and their cycle of life.Preserving and taking care of the nature and environment means maintaining and preserving the breath, biota life, and creatures inhabiting it.On the other hand, destroying the nature and environment means harming and threatening the breath, biota life, and its inhabitants.Overall in the Kalimantan region, there are 5 provinces consisting of West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and North Kalimantan which have a similar management system in farming.

The dataset collected farmers’ opinions based on seven factors from the TPB-NAM integration model.In particular, TPB has been accepted and widely used in studies with the purpose of predicting individual intentions and behavior, empirical studies have shown the relevance of this theory in the study of farmers’ intentions/behavior.NAM is derived from a pro-social context and has been widely used in many studies to explain not only pro-social intentions/behavior but also pro-environmental intentions/behavior in a wide range of contexts.The data set was collected through a 2-part survey: the first part explores the respondents’ characteristics including: gender, age, educational qualification, farming experience and farming annual income ; the second part explores respondents’ consent to statements related to factors affecting the intention to produce organic agriculture ; Table 3 shows more detailed results between the variables.It took the farmer about 20 minutes to complete the entire survey.The survey was conducted directly at the farmer’s residence or farm in October 2019.The survey team received the support from Department of Science and Technology in Hanoi to list and approach the target farmers.Respondents were farmers who were practicing conventional farming in Hanoi, Vietnam.Respondents were selected at random but still ensured their representativeness in some regions that were promoting the conversion to organic farming such as Soc Son, Chuong My, Ba Vi,…in Hanoi.Each farmer participating in the survey received a support of 2 US dollar after completing all the contents of the questionnaire which were distributed directly and collected by the survey team.The survey team designed a survey of 38 items, of which 5 were about respondents’ characteristics, the remaining 33 items, are designed on a 5-point Likert scale , focus on 7 factors: intention, ebb and flow bench attitude, subject norms, perceived behavioral control, personal norm, awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility.

All items in the survey are inherited from previous studies and the replying is complete mandatory to ensure that the collected data does not contain missing data.The questionnaire did not use the reverse question, which was conducted directly by the survey team, with detailed observations and assisting farmers in the answer process.All responses of the respondents were imported into Excel software before importing to SPSS 22.Before the analysis, the variables were encoded and the data were checked to ensure the validity of each questionnaire.After discarding invalid questionnaires, the final dataset contained 318 questionnaires.Bangladesh is ranked as the fifth-largest aquaculture-producing nation.The shrimp culture contributes 71.4 % to the total national production.The aquaculture industry has shown rapid growth with a critical role in Bangladesh’s economy, becoming the second-largest export industry after garments.It started to grow slowly in a commercial mode of aquaculture in the middle 1970s due to increasing demand in the international market.Shrimp culture mainly practices in Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat, and Cox’s Bazar districts of Bangladesh.It is safe to say that shrimp culture in these areas richly supports the sustainability, resilience, and social-economic status of the coastal shrimp farmer communities.The fisheries sector contributed approximately 2.73 % of the total export earnings and 22.21 % to the agricultural industry.Export earnings from the fisheries sector have increased from USD 151,244,659 in 1995–1996 to USD 356,707,522 in 2009–2010 , which is more than double, hence shows a promising potential in this sector to uplift the poor farming communities.The booming shrimp farming industry generated diverse employment opportunities, with the 87,000 persons directly involved in farming activities, while other 5000–6000 families working in the shrimp processing and ancillary industries.The latest estimates illustrate that a large area of saline land is under shrimp cultivation in Bangladesh , making it a reasonable stakeholder in the national economy and bringing profitable usage of the uncultivable land.Currently, shrimp farming and allied industries are the primary income sources for the rural communities of south-western and southeastern coastal areas of Bangladesh.

Among the aquaculture types, shrimp aquaculture has shown rapid growth with a critical role in Bangladesh’s economy.The United Nations Development Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization have reported approximately 2.1 lac hectares of the land went under shrimp farming.Out of which, 93,799 shrimp farms are Bagda , and Golda are cultured in 67,644 farms.Previously, the area under brackish water prawn culture was 128,274 ha, while freshwater prawns culture has grown to 28,411 ha, making 156945 ha.It represents about 80 % of the total area under shrimp cultivation in Bangladesh.Among the essential shrimp species, brackish water shrimp farming is currently one of the most popular concerning the national economy.In Southern Bangladesh, thousands of farmers have transformed their none-profiting paddy fields to ’gher’ to start as a profitable shrimp culture practice.The P.monodon culture in Bangladesh is practiced in the ponds situated alongside a river.This modification entails the construction of higher dikes by excavating a deep enough canal inside, and the periphery of the dikes facilitates entry of the water during the dry season.The commercial shrimp culture began in the 1970s and radically expanded in the ensuing decades.Furthermore, it has taken place mainly on the reclaimed mangrove forest areas in the Sundarban region at Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira District.We planned this study to highlight how modern shrimp farming practices could have improved and influenced the livelihood patterns, social-economic status, household structures, and overall living standards of the coastal communities in Southern Bangladesh as they are directly involved in shrimp farming.We expected that the study could provide better insights into promoting sustainable shrimp farming in southwest coastal Bangladesh.The main objectives of our study include the understanding of potential changes in shrimp farming in the southwest coastal Bangladesh.Therefore, we assessed shrimp farming’s major social-economic status indicators, indicating the significant phases and present shrimp farming situation.We also surveyed for income and satisfaction levels among the shrimp farming communities.

The study area map denoting three wards is showing in Fig.1.The study was conducted in three wards of Ishwaripur Union under Shyamnagar Upazila, Satkhira District, located near the Sundarbans in southwest coastal Bangladesh.We randomly selected the survey respondents among the shrimp farmers located in the study area.The total population of the Ishwaripur Union is 45,202 , with 49 % male and 51 % female inhabitants.Muslim community dominates as 74 %, while the rest of them are other religios communities.The literacy rate is reported at 55.04 percent with limited educational institutions.Please see the supplementary material Table 1 for detailed information on educational institutions present in the study area.In Shyamnagar Upazila, a large number of farmers are involved in shrimp farming.The respondents were selected from three different locations, i.e., location 1 , location 2 , and location 3 in Ishwaripur Union under Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira, Bangladesh.A total of 50 respondents were interviewed by questionnaire method, and 2 case studies were conducted among the respondents.In these case studies, the sample size was determined by a stratified proportionate sampling method through the total shrimp farming household.The total number of households and sample size in each ward in the study area are shown in supplementary material Table 2.The distribution of frequency and percentage of respondents were categorized based on the land size in their farms is shown in supplementary material Table 3.A questionnaire was designed to survey the social-economic issues due to shrimp farming and its implications on local livelihood.The preliminary survey focused on the shrimp farmers current social-economic status.During this survey, the data were collected by the pre-tested draft questionnaire from the two respondents of each category.Then the questionnaire was finalized for collecting the necessary data through the interview method.The survey method was conducted through direct interviews with the different stakeholders.The information was also collected about the earlier traditional social structure and livelihood status of shrimp farming stakeholders, and we checked they changed or not due to shrimp farming.We also analyzed the intragenerational changes in the sustainability of livelihood framework such as age group, educational status,4x8ft rolling benches alternative occupation, social status, financial capital assets were also analyzed by DFID for determining the impacts of shrimp farming development at the coastal area of Bangladesh and financial capital assets to determine the effects of shrimp farming development in Bangladesh’s coastal region.

The data was collected through direct observation and transect walk toolkit.The primary data were collected through the questionnaire survey group discussion and interview.However, all the data were crosschecked to ensure the accuracy of data collected from the respondents.The Focus Group discussions were conducted to identify the problems and collect fishermen’s recommendations regarding the issues identified to develop an effective solution.We performed the data error analyses, management, standardization, scaling, and other procedures.According to the total response value of open-ended answers, the information was categorized during data processing.The tabulation was performed by using the Statistical Package for Social Science , while Microsoft Excel was used to prepare the illustrations.The leading percentages of shrimp farmers age groups comprised of the middle age, i.e., 36–40 years old and above 40 years.Less than 30 years old farmers made up only 6%, with 31− 35 years old as 18 %.The previous studies have shown that most 16–30 aged displayed the highest involvement in this occupation.The shrimp farmers age distribution provides valuable insights into the decision-making and profitable farming operations ability.It is critical to notice that the younger people displayed no interest in shrimp fishing , which alludes to looming crises if the situation prevails.On the other hand, the respondents educational status was categorized into six categories.The 24 % of the farmers obtained SSC and upper-level education, while 76 % did not enter high school, with 14 % as illiterates.It is alarming to note only 8% of farmers with university level education.Das et al.reported that 75 % of the fishing community was illiterate.However, our study exhibited a different trend believed to be improving due to the uplift of the shrimp farming communities social-economic status.Rahman reported that the fishermen are socially, economically, and educationally disadvantaged and lack sufficient financial resources to invest in education.Karim and Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council revealed low or no education as the characteristic feature in rural life in some villages.Owing to higher financial stress, the shrimp farmers relied on alternative occupations to meet their financial demands.This study showed the tendency of alternative careers among the shrimp farmers.We found that people in the study area were involved with diverse professions.Fishing , agriculture , and private businesses remained the most preferred primary sources of income among the shrimp farmers, while personal business was the most preferred secondary source of income.It indicated that a considerable percentage of shrimp farmers relied upon various alternative sources to meet their financial demands.Due to the higher subsistence level, the seasonal and sometimes professional fishers are engaged in multiple earning activities on a part-time basis, especially during the low season for fishing.Many fishers were also involved in agricultural activities.The increasing percentages of executive involvement are noticeable in the study area, a promising sign for the shrimp farming community.The quality of life and living standard depend on the adequacy of living resources, education status, industrial production, and agricultural practices.More or less, electricity is inevitable to maintain sustainable living standards.Our data revealed that 34 % of the farmers have no access to electricity.For the rest of the inhabitants, the primary sources of electricity are the Rural Electrification Board and solar energy , with other sources including battery and oil engine generators.However, compared to the preceding reports, the mainstream shrimp farmers can use electricity and allied facilities in their households and farming units.It denoted significant development and improvement in the coastal communities living standards directly linked to shrimp farming in Bangladesh.Most of the people used pond sand filter facilities for drinking water.However, fewer people have to use rainwater after harvesting it while the rest use water directly from the pond without any filtration.Hossain et al.and Ali et al.observed that a large share of collected water was brought from the government groundwater tube well and neighboring tube-well in Bangladesh.Due to the critical and demanding nature of natural water supply, most of the population is concerned about drinking water safety, with a moderate population of people opined having no idea.Only 10 % pronounced it as unsafe for drinking purposes.The provision of safe drinking water for livestock animals was not considered during this study.Safe drinking water is of paramount importance for the human populations as well as sustainable management of drinking waters is equally essential as it is liable for health and public safety.

Solar and biomass technologies are reportedly the widest adopted renewable energy technologies in the country with potential yearly solar irradiation and large amount of biodegradable waste available from farming facilities. However, there is still a lot of efforts to be done to meet the national electricity targets access of 100 % by 2030. These efforts mainly depend on financial resources availability and electrification strategies to be put in place through public private partnerships like in most Sub-Saharan African countries. The PPPs in the energy sector usually address the energy deficit in two ways : by refurbishing existing energy infrastructures such as power plants, transmission, and distribution networks in connected urban and rural arears in SSA and, by investing in the development and installation of RETs in existing disconnected localities. As such, since most disconnected localities in Africa have a proven untapped agricultural potential, many private power developers are promoting the implementation of de-centralized mini-utilities, also called mini-grids. These minigrids are used as alternative cost-effective energy solutions using locally available resources, specifically solar and abundant biomass. From this perspective, this paper briefly presents and encourages the development of a pilot Biogas-Solar Photovoltaic Hybrid Mini-grid in the town of Palapye. In fact, BSPVHM addresses power shortage by using sunlight and bio-waste to generate eco-friendly energy at a lower installation and operating cost. Through an autonomous energy management system, the BSPVHM allows to generate electricity while managing the supply of power from various sources. Apart from electricity, the BSPVHM produces fertilizers from the remaining digestate after anaerobic digestion that occurs in the bio-digester. These fertilizers can be used after treatment to increase the production of crops through soil enhancement techniques,vertical grow rack allowing farmers to have greater harvest, become energy independent and boost the local economy.

The purpose of this pilot project is to serve as a road map for a waste management and electricity supply in African localities with the similar context like the city of Palapye. This is achieved through the review of the state of the art, the assessment of available solar and waste ressources in Palapye, the preliminary design of the configuration of the BSPVHM, and future recommendations based on the projected limitations of this pilot project.The use of traditional fossil fuel technologies is largely adopted in many African countries. These technologies allow them to quickly address the existing lack of power in their underserved areas. For this reason, various industries use diesel / heavy fuel oil gensets to meet their daily energy demand. However, diesel and HFO are not affordable for everyone and not ecofriendly. Apart from electricity, pollution is another source of sicknesses such as lung infections in rural arears. Studies show that most women suffer from lung infections due to the use of charcoal that are used for cooking. Africa reportedly releases more than 1.3 billion tons of CO2 on a yearly basis from various industries. To alleviate this pollution, a clean energy revolution in Africa is essential especially in SSA. In addition to environmental benefits offered, clean energy sources can unlock sustainable economic growth, improve human health, and empower women and children to live more productively. Mini-grid systems powered by RETs sources such as solar PV and biomass energy are adequate energy solutions for African disconnected areas with high agricultural potential. Even though solar PV and biomass are both RETs and biomass has a greater installed capacity in the world than solar PV, the latter is the most widely used form of energy generation source in the world nowadays. Solar PV is a mature technology that converts solar radiation energy into electricity by means of different equipment, principally solar modules, and power inverters. This kind of technology is currently amongst the most adopted energy sources due to its reliability and capacity to produce electricity at reasonably low cost despite its intermittencies. One of the main drivers considered to analyze the suitability of solar PV generation for a specific location is the solar irradiation level of that proposed site. SSA has one of highest irradiation levels in the world and is seen as the best place to develop and install such solar RETs.

The main limitations of solar PV are its inability to produce electricity in absence of solar radiation and the intermittency of its production, caused by weather disturbances. Solar energy is produced during the central hours of the day, which depends on the time that the sun raises and sets across the different periods of the year. The production of the solar plant is highly dependent on the altitude of the sun, weather disturbances during each season, the orientation towards the North, seasonal variations that affects the productibility. Biomass technologies include gasification, pyrolysis, AD, landfill, ethanol fermentation, photobiological process, dark fermentation, microbial fuel cell and microbial electrolysis cell . Biomass gasification is the most widely adopted waste-to-energy technologies technique for hybrid mini-grid set-up with solar PV. Generally, the gasifier is fed with wastes such as maize cobs and rice husks with a combustion process at 150°C to produce syngas that is filtered and converted to electricity by means of a multi-stage gasifier generator. In addition, bio-char which is a process by-product is used in the briquette making. These hybrid set-ups are largely found in Bangladesh, India and Uganda. The advantage of gasification is that it operates with a large diversity of wastes compared to AD that only works with organic waste with high moisture content and cellulose. The main disadvantage of this technique is that gasifier requires a lot of energy, release more carbon CO2 in the atmosphere and does not offer a competitive business model for agricultural communities like AD. AD produces biogas to generate electricity, heat, fuel and fertilizers from agricultural wastes and organic fraction of municipal solid wastes. Unlike solar PV that is intermittent, biogas power plant is base-load and can generate power at any time of the day depending on the feed stock intake in the digester. One of the challenges is that waste to energy technologies are more costly than solar PV in terms of installation and operations and Maintenance costs during asset lifespan.These KPIs are the design of the power plant, availability and quality of feed stocks, biomethane potential of substrates to be used, type of digestions that is selected, temperature conditions of the process , capacity factor of the biogas power plant, electricity conversion factor of the generator, viability of the tariff at which electricity will be sold and market profitability of by-products such as biofertilizer from AD digestate that accounts for 90% of the remaining digestate after power generation. These KPIs are the reasons as to why it is not as widely adopted as other RETs such as solar PV or onshore wind technologies . The current food regime has created a number of persistent environmental problems, such as climate change, environmental degradation and biodiversity loss, while it has also driven many farms to the verge of financial profitability.

Addressing these problems through a fundamental reorientation of the food system—a sustainability transition—calls for substantial changes taking place at the level of farm systems. However, farmers have been frequently described as being amongst the least powerful actors in food systems, acting mostly as price-takers, which makes them ill-equipped to act as transition agents . The contemporary food system is pushing farms towards more specialisation, intensification and growth to keep up with the cost-price squeeze , while the pressures for a fundamental reorientation in farming are mounting for the sake of environmental sustainability. The traditional approach to confronting sustainability problems as related to production practices and farm management has been advocated for decades through, for example, agri-environmental policies within the European Union. However, critics argue that many such strategies do not challenge the systemic features that contributed to the problems in the first place and are thus inadequate to address the root causes of sustainability problems. The consumption approach takes a different position, attributing the environmental crisis to consumption patterns, especially over-consumption of high-impact animal-based products . Under this approach, a dietary transition towards more plant-based consumption is the most critical solution to address the sustainability problems of the food system. However, the dietary transition translates as a threat to the livelihood of especially many peripheral regions where farms and farmers lack feasible production and employment alternatives due to unfavourable growing conditions and paucity of non-agricultural jobs . The problem with both production- and consumption-oriented perspectives is that they do not address questions of power and agency that are fundamental elements of the unsustainability of the contemporary food system . Accordingly, as Garnett states: “The concern lies not just with production, and not just with consumption: it is the outcome of unequal relationships between and amongst producers and consumers, across and within countries and communities.” Yet the questions of power, agency and social justice have received limited research interest in relation to initiatives promoting sustainability and climate change mitigation amongst food systems . To this end, an emerging area of ‘just transitions’ research has been gaining a stronger foothold amongst the sustainability transitions literature . In the context of food systems, research on just sustainability transitions draws from existing scholarship on food justice,vertical grow tables which is devoted to studying power and agency in food system, food system transformation, and distribution of harms and benefits of food system activities across various social groups and spatial scales .

Despite the urgency of efforts to promote sustainability transition within the food systems, and the observations related to farmers’ weak power position, there is very limited understanding about farmers’ capacities to transform . In this study, we examine the transformative capacities of farmers in a peripheral context to understand how they are positioned relative to the prospective sustainability transition. We operationalise farmers’ transformative capacities through the concept of resilience: by referring to resilience as persistence, adaptability, and transformability,we analyse the ‘fit’ of farms with the external system, characterised by rigidity and path-dependency on the one hand and mounting pressures for a disruptive transition on the other. The concept of resilience allows us to move beyond analysis of production lines or practices to be promoted or debilitated and analyse the position of farms as parts of the food system: whether and under which conditions peripheral farms can participate in the main function of food systems—food production. We discuss our findings in the context of just transition, which addresses social inequalities and tensions related to transition processes along the dimensions of distributive, procedural, recognitive, cosmopolitan and restorative justice . While the uneven consequences of transition processes are usually analysed in terms of distributive justice , we argue that the concept of restorative justice offers a theoretically unelaborated but promising pathway to understand the ways forward from the detected inequalities: how to compensate or restore the actors’ positions shaken by the transition processes . In particular, we elaborate on the recently developed proactive elements of restorative justice and argue that restoration should go beyond only reacting and compensating for harm created but also promoting the actors’ resilience in transition processes. Our empirical context is Finland, particularly its eastern, peripheral regions, where the livelihoods of many farmers and, partly, regional economies are dependent on cattle production. This is due to the region’s climatic conditions and soil properties being particularly suited for grass production, whereas crop cultivation suffers from profitability problems or from a short growing season . Furthermore, crop production does not offer possibilities for full-time employment in peripheral areas, which also lack the abundant job markets of economically prosperous regions . We base our findings on representative survey data retrieved from farmers in eastern Finland in 2018 . Social systems, such as food systems, may accommodate several stability domains. These stability domains are analogous with regimes as temporally stable configurations of a social-ecological or socio-technical system.We understand regimes as dynamically stable configurations of social systems prevailing over specific time frames. Sustainability transitions can thus be conceptualised as regime shifts or moves into new stability domains. These systemic transformations affect the subsystems residing within larger-scale systems, such as farms as parts of food systems.