Nature Agriculture

Recently, the fallow periods have been decreasing,which indicates higher pressure on the soil as long as no fertilizers are applied to compensate for the loss of soil fertility in this region. This has generated two serious problems. First it is reduced the quality and quantity of crop output. Second it is produced fragmented and poor soil as a result of the misuse of land. Moreover,the soil in western Sudan had deteriorated and lost most of its potential with almost no recovery .The reduction in food and cash crop productivity has perceptibly emerged from a general comparison of the average weighted yields for the major field crops over five ten-years periods as shown in Table 1. It appears from the table that the yield of sorghum was higher in compared to the yield of millet from period (1970/71-1979/80) to (2010/11-2012/13). Additionally, the yield of groundnut was higher from period (1970/71-1979/80)up to (2010/11-2012/13) in compared to the yield of sesame. The table shows the higher fluctuation of all crops productivity over the five ten year’s periods. Therefore, moving from high yield to low yield would reflect the low crop production in the traditional farming of western Sudan as a consequence of poor farm management and inappropriate policy strategies.

The low productivity of crops is caused by a number of factors, among them low soil fertility, low and erratic rainfall, eruption of pests and diseases, and poor adoption of improved seed varieties.Millet and sorghum (as subsistence food crops) are produced extensively by the farm households in the study area to cover their food subsistence needs. On the other hand, groundnut crop is grown in the western part of North Kordofan State, while sesame crop is cultivated in the Northern part. However,hydroponic gutter both crops are cultivated to provide cash income in order to satisfy other food and basic needs for the farmers. The analysis of the cultivated areas and production of both food and cash crops was revealed the vital role for these crops in food security.The time series data exposed the current trends of the average cultivated area by sorghum and millet crops in North Kordofan State from period 1970/71 to 2012/13 as illustrated in Figure 3.The fluctuation in the cultivated area of sorghum and millet crops is explained by inadequate management of field crop practices and lack of technology adoption. The serious impact of environmental conditions such as desertification and drought contribute negatively to the cultivated area. In view of the fact that millet is a stable food for consumption, its production is characterized by large cultivated areas during the last 43 years relative to sorghum crops. Nevertheless, an analysis of the cultivated area would not reveal the complete picture on the performance of crops unless the production of these crops can be analyzed.

The analysis of production for both food crops (sorghum and millet) in North Kordofan State from season1970/71 to 2012/13 as shown in Figure 4. The production of millet and sorghum crops recorded continuous declining and fluctuating during the period 1970/71-2012/13. Despite of an increase in the cultivated area of millet crops its production exhibited an acute decline. Millet is very sensitive to the instability of rainfall and drought.Thus, the fluctuation in the total production of both millet and sorghum often result in food insecurity, hydroponic nft channel most of the time manifested in the form of localized or pockets of food in security.An analysis of the cultivated areas by groundnut and sesame crops is exposed in Figure 5. This outcome coincides with the objectives of the government policies that seek to expand the cultivated area under cash crop production for the purpose of market orientation and export. Thus, the trends of the cultivated area by cash crops increased from 1970/71 to2012/13. This is described by upward trends in the cultivated areas for both groundnut and sesame. Furthermore, the time series data for analyzing the output of cash crops during the period 1970/71-2012/13 is clearly demonstrated in Figure 6. The figure shows the forward trend of groundnut production in compared to sesame production. Consequently, the output trends for both food and cash crops reflect the inadequate situation of food security in North Kordofan State, since cash crops are the most important farm income sources.

In recent years, Buea has experienced an increase in population resulting in an increased demand for tomatoes. This has caused a tomato shortage and led many small-scale farmers to change to tomato cultivation, even though they had limited knowledge on tomato farming techniques. Buea is an ideal environment to grow tomatoes,because the land has streams and springs which facilitate irrigation by running down the mountain slope of the municipality. In Buea, tomato cultivation has benefited the economy by increasing both community employment and the income of small- and medium-scale farmers. The tomatoes grown are used for household and domestic consumption, and are in demand in neighboring areas of Cameroon and other nations. Yet, in Cameroon,the production of tomatoes has been shown to be greatly impacted by different types of pests . Farmers often regard pesticides to be the primary solution to boost their crop productivity, but the farmers’ increasing dependence on pesticides has attracted little attention in Cameroon. The increased crop productivity is especially appreciated by the small-scale farmers, but there is also increasing concern expressing about the health effects of pesticide use within the communities.

This study was performed to determine the degree and types of pesticide use, the Buea farmer’s reliability on chemicals to control pests and to assess the knowledge,and perception of farmers on pesticide effectiveness and potential health risks. Criteria for participation included the farmer must have lived upon and practiced pesticide use on their farm for a minimum of 3 years, own/rent a tomato farm with a size between ≤200 m2 to 900 m2 within the Buea municipality,and able to communicate in either English, French, “pidgin English” or the local language (Bakweri).Participants were recruited with the assistance of community leaders, churches, and local groups in the study area. Letters were sent to each of these entities which contained a clear explanation of reasons for the study,study objectives, inclusion criteria, consent to participate, and voluntary participation. Those farmers who expressed interest in participation were invited to meet at the community leaders’ residence, group meeting locations, or church premises. At these meetings, the principal investigator reviewed the study and explained the content. If the farmer wished to participate,ebb and flow trays the consent form was signed, and the questionnaire was given to complete. All participants spoke “pidgin English” which is the commonly used language in the South West region. Those participants who could not read came with a family member or friend to assist in understanding each question and how to complete the questionnaire. The principal investigator also followed up with those farmers who could not read English, and translated the questionnaire into their preferred language to make sure the questions were fully understood.Of the 98 farmers who volunteered to participate in the survey, 3 dropped out of the study due to travel difficulties.This left a total of 95 participating farmers.

As a quality control measure, all questionnaires were checked and double-keyed to ensure the questions were answered. Two questionnaires had missing values and were excluded from the study. This left a final total of 93 farmers who successfully completed all aspects of the study. Africa, farmers have been shown to apply pesticides more frequently with the hope of acquiring better results. African farmers have also been shown to lack knowledge on the appropriate techniques and management of pesticides or alternative ways to control pests which could be addressed by instituting agricultural extension service programs . In many African countries, governmental programs have encouraged the use of pesticides with a focus on crop and production yield, but without giving serious consideration of the environmental and health risks consequences .

In Koraput, 61 percent of protein was obtained from cereals and millets in2014, which decreased to 51 percent in 2017; other major contributors of protein are vegetables, pulses and legumes and animal foods . In Wardha, 52percent of protein was obtained from cereals and millets followed by vegetables and pulses and legumes in 2014. Following FSN interventions, in 2017, 41 percent of protein was obtained from cereals and millets and remaining share from vegetables, pulses and legumes increased. Overall, protein obtained from animal foods increased by 2 percent after intervention in both locations.In Koraput, protein obtained from fishes and sea foods increased from 3percent to 7 percent due after intervention. The average calcium intake per CU per day in 2014 was more than the RDA in Koraput and increased significantly after intervention by 333g. This increase may have been due to increase in consumption of finger millet and green leafy vegetables sourced from home production and fish from market. Major share of calcium was obtained from cereals and millets ,vegetables  and animal foods  in 2014 which changed to 35 percent,32 percent and 26 percent respectively in 2017.

About 93 percent of the households in 2014 consumed calcium more than 70 percent of RDA which further increased to 97 percent in 2017. Puranik et al.  reported that for low-income households which mostly depend on starchy and bulky foods like rice for their calorie requirements, finger millet ensures a pragmatic solution. Bioavailability of calcium  in finger millet is high when compared with other cereals like rice , maize  and sorghumIn Wardha the average intake of calcium was less than RDA in 2014 and increased significantly by 421 g and met the RDA as most of the households consuming less than 70 percent of recommended allowance of calcium in 2014 were consuming more than 70 percent of RDA, in 2017 after FSN intervention. There was a notable increase in consumption of millets,mobile vertical grow tables leafy vegetables, animal foods,all of which are primary source of calcium. In 2014, calcium was obtained majorly from cereals and millets followed by vegetables and animal foods and after intervention in 2017, animal foods, mainly fishes and sea foods from market followed by vegetables mainly green leafy vegetables contributed major share of calcium to the diet . Similar results, calcium intake more than recommended level was reported by Adhiguru and Ramasamy after vegetable production system intervention. Increased intake of calcium was reported due to consumption of vegetables and fruits from home garden by Alemu, et al. and Kim and Park .

The average per CU per day intake of iron in Koraput in 2014 was less than the RDA  which significantly increased by 6 mg in 2017 after FSN intervention.About 71 percent of the households were consuming iron more than 70 percent of RDA in 2014 and in 2017, 92 percent of the households consume diron more than 70 percent of RDA. In Wardha, in 2014 the intake was more than RDA, however it further significantly increased by 10 mg in 2017. The quantity of iron from home garden promoted as FSN activity increased in both the locations. Cereals and millets was the main source of iron in both the locations in 2014 and remained to be the higher source in 2017. Coarse cereals likesorghum, pearl millet and finger millet and whole wheat have relatively high iron and folate content . Pulses and legumes was the second source of iron in2014 which changed to vegetables in 2017 in Koraput and vegetables and pulses and legumes in Wardha. Adhiguru and Ramasamy  reported that the vegetable production system highly favoured the increased intake of iron, vitamin A and vitamin C. In this study, two sectors adjacent to Gishwati Forest national park were identified based on the location of the cooperatives which deal with agriculture and beekeeping. During the data collection, two cooperative working in sectors adjacent to Gishwati Forest national park were selected and provided accurate information.In Ruhango sector, Kavumu Cell, Gakeli Village, all 51 beekeepers grouped in UNICOAPIGI cooperative were identified and Kigeyo Sector, RukaragataCell, Kagondero Village, all 73 house hold farmers grouped in JYAMBERE cooperative were selected and involved in data collection. Before conducting the survey, field visit and observations was conducted to better design the questionnaire and identify the main elements of the study including agricultural and beekeeping activities in adjacent to Gishwati Forest Nationalpark and in surrounding of the park.

These products should be handled with care since fish may be infected by A. hydrophila strains that cause skin infections .Studies on frozen and fresh fish on Aeromonas strains related to the deterioration process of fresh and frozen fish, in frozen foods could be recovered .A survey conducted in the state of Sao Paulo evaluated salmon microbiology by quantifying microorganisms in the flesh of 31 salmon samples  and detected Aeromonas ssp. and other microorganisms in the retail network of several cities in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Aeromonas ssp. Have been detected in 41.95% of the samples, with population variation from 2.0 × 102to 8.0 × 103 CFU/G . Another study in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,investigated the occurrence of Aeromonas hydrophila and Campylobacter jejuniin the samples of fresh tuna  captured on the coast of Santa Catarina and evaluated 85 samples of tuna fillets by using bacteriological analysis andPCR. Eleven  samples were positive for Aeromonas spp., with 10/11 proved to be Aeromonas hydrophila by PCR The sawfish was contaminated by A. hydrophila , vectoring the pathogenic agent when the fish was consumed .

The above-mentioned study collected 60 samples of live  and frozen fish from 15 local markets in Baghdad, Iraq, to isolate Aeromonas hydrophila and determine hemolytic activity, isolates’ cytotoxicity, and their susceptibility to antibiotics. Furthermore, 65% of the samples had Aeromonas hydrophila, 76.6% were found in samples of live fish and 53.3% in frozen fish; hemolysisα e β was detected in 94.87% of the samples; 100% of the isolates from live fish had β hemolysis, whereas 85.7% showed β hemolysis, and 14.3% showedα hemolysis; 97.43% of the isolates had cytotoxic effect on Vero cells. All isolates were 100% resistant to penicillin, ampicillin, cloxacillin, and bacitracin, according to the sensitivity test, whereas resistance to other antibiotics was 56.5% to oxitetraciclina; 33.4% to tetracycline, 30.8% to cefoxetin, hydroponic bucket and 28.2% to chloramphenicol and kanamycin. Isolates were resistant to streptomycin and rifampicin,respectively, at 23.1% and 15.4%. Four species of Aeromonas spp.  were identified in all samples analyzed in sports fish farms in the state of Maranhao, Brazil. These fish farms were a possible risk in the transmission of pathogenic Aeromonas and a risk factor for consumers offish bred on these farms .

Aeromonas are gastroenteritis-causing bacteria that are transmitted to humans by contact with the etiological agent and the intake of contaminated meat, vegetables, and water. Several studies suggested that infection by Aeromonas was one of the causes of traveler’s diarrhea .A. hydrophila , free-living bacteria, were found to cause diseases in fish; they are an opportunistic pathogen in humans. A. hydrophila infections in animals and humans in Thailand first occurred in 1976 and 1979, respectively, with fish mortality between 0% and 20%. Diarrhea is prevalent in the cases of human infection. Vila et al.  showed that A. veronii biovar sobria and A. caviae are mostly associated with traveler’s diarrhea. Pereira et al.  investigated the presence of Aeromonas in neonates hospitalized in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and obtained 94.6% prevalence rate for Aeromonas . A. caviae was the most prevalent in the samples. They may also cause skin damage to infected individuals. Bacteria cause intestinal infections associated with severe diarrhea and may be lethal if it infects other regions of the body, such as an open wound. The presence of Aeromonas spp. in foods of animal origin suggests that these species persists even when hygiene and sanitary control is employed, leading to a risk to consumers’ health Aeromonas spp. are important pathogenic microorganisms.

Since they originate from water and other environments, they can adapt themselves to a wide variety of environments owing to several virulence factors. The above is directly linked to the microorganism’s pathogenicity for human beings In fact,water and food play an important role in the transmission of the pathogen .Because of the remarkable diversity of ecosystems in which Aeromonas inhabit,they have become resistant to antimicrobial agents and become highly virulent.In fact, several Aeromonas species secrete extracellular proteins such as amylase, chitinase, elastase, aerolysine, nuclease, gelatinase, lecitinase, lipase, and protease, which, according to the literature, are known to be virulent factors that cause disease in fish and human beings  A. hydrophila is a gram-negative bacterium with virulence factors such as hemolysins,aerolysins, adesins, and enterotoxins.

The same applies to the disposal in the open air and in the water, which reduced 47% and 62%, respectively, from the complete illiterate to the high school.The decrease in the burning process occurred from raising the education level causing a significant increase in the waste packaging process in closed locations, collection  and recycling  that began to be a behavior of some family members within the production units which have studied Incomplete Elementary School, rising greatly to the ones which attended High School.There was also a 34% increase in the burying process of waste generated based on the high level of education. This indicates that producers believe by burying the waste they are giving a correct destination, however, without knowing the consequences to the families.Nevertheless, even rising the garbage produced amount by family units in Acre as there has been increased in income; it’s possible to note that the educational level plays a key role in the environmental awareness formation.

Through research, it was found that from incomplete Elementary School occurred behavioral changes regarding the destination of the waste. There was, for example,increased process of selective collection, recycling, burial, and waste packaging indoors. Also, a decrease in the open air and in water bodies dump as well as in the waste burning. Rice is not a semiarid region crop because of its high water requirements. However, in Eritrea significant runoff produced from nonagricultural lands, which occupy >50% – 80% area of all agricultural watersheds,nft growing system can be harvested and used as additional rainwater to facilitate rice farming. Farmers cultivate crops on un-terraced sloppy lands that also contribute 60% – 70% of rainfall as runoff, which flows forming numerous channels and gullies damaging downstream field crops. In watersheds of size more than 5 ha, runoff frequently floods the downstream fields at the outlet rendering them unfit for raising a good crop during rainy season .The same runoff could be boon to rice production if diverted through designed waterways into small ponds constructed on upstream side of such fields . Crop yields in Eritrea are low  because >70% ofthe total rainfall is lost as runoff from traditional sloppy fields Storage of even part of the runoff in watersheds, which is also rich in nutrients and soil colloidal fractions, can serve as not only extra rainwater but also nutrients for crops.Rice cultivation through water harvesting in terraced fields was successfully demonstrated in Uganda . Although rice likes wetter regime in the root zone, irrigations applied at 8 days interval were also optimum for rice growth in Sudan .

Rice needs water to meet its evapotranspiration  requirements and to satisfy percolation from the soil moisture regime of field capacity to submergence necessary for optimum yields High percolation from rice fields and ponds made for harvesting runoff to meet water requirements of rice will also recharge groundwater table that may serve as source of sub-irrigation directly into the crop root zone Tesfamichael observed development of water table that fluctuated from 0.4 – 1.2 m depth from surface during October 2006 to March 2007 in about 6 ha valley farmland in Akriya, Asmara region of Eritrea, surrounded by 36.5 ha hilly terrain.Contribution of groundwater table to ET requirements of wheat was 90% from the water table fluctuating from 0.4 – 0.55 m depth from surface, which declined to 38% as water table dropped to 1.2 m depth by milk stage .Runoff farming has been traditionally practiced as spate irrigation in Eritrea since more than 100 years ago .Spate irrigation is a pre-planting system of irrigation by diverting seasonal rivers producing flash floods from highlands and mountainous areas to recharge soil profile in the lowlands. More than 50% of total irrigation in Eritrea is through spate irrigation practiced from eastern to western lowlands along the Red sea coast Depending upon rainfall, catchment size and runoff from highlands, diversion dams are constructed in the rivers to channelize runoff into cultivated fields to recharge soil profile in several flash floods before planting a crop.Water use efficiency of spate irrigation systems in Eritrea has been low due to wild flooding of uncropped fields leading to over or inadequate watering All spate irrigated fields in Eritrea could prove boon to rice production with high water use efficiency through improvements in existing diversion structures to regulate flood water supply and field level management. Rice could be grown during preplanting irrigation period from the third week of June to October with little intervention in the existing cropping system and flood water management.Objective of this study was to design and develop runoff harvesting system in agricultural watersheds associated with nonagricultural lands to facilitate runoff farming of rice in semiarid environments of Hamelmalo,Anseba region of Eritrea.

Additional in-dices, which address some of the critical aspects of agro- ecological health and vulnerability to disasters, need attention . They include; 1) Environment Vulnerability Index : It is natural disaster threats to farming activity aggravated by the anthropogenic degradative factors. EVI use vulnerability definition in terms of degree of resilience to various hazards/damaging indicators. Pooled weights will pro-vide insight on the vulnerability and suggest measures to enhance resilient mechanisms both for natural and man-made hazards ; 2) Agro-ecosystem Health Index : It includes the evaluation of the land resources, water resources, air quality, functional species richness and gene pools in an agricultural landscape ; 3) Agro-ecology Capital Index : It can include the natural resource capital, traditional knowledge/skills capital at farm level, marketable goods/services capital. In this case, the total asset capital linked to bio-banking process may be assumed positive when the resource payments are re-invested to ensure that capital stock will never decline .

It can include certain incentive me- chanism to bring in required positive change in conservation of agro-biodiversity. It must consider the asset value in terms of uniqueness of functional richness of diversity, rarity, traditional varieties and threatened species conservation efforts across the farms enabling better contested ranking to assign incentives . However, it must have internalized EVI to assess the resilience factor; iv) Environmentally adjusted net Resources Index : Similar to System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting ,grow table hydroponic must consider all natural re-sources to assess the net resource capital  depreciation due to ex-traction of economic resources and subtraction of the adjusted environmental pressures and destruction forces. Ecological indicators are useful to understand the magnitude of change, amount of exposure to change or degree of response to the exposure . Scientific methods defining comparability, weighting and aggregation are pre-requisites for construction of meaningful sustainability indices. Generic models, which facilitate data inputting and sharing across the disciplines, serve the scientific community to integrate the analyses across the locations . In most of the cases, model based outputs will have limitations when analyzed at the scale of effects-means, where as one can conceive an experimental approach to validate the effect-means based indicators, which are inherently subjective.

Currently used sustain-ability indices in terms of means and effects appear to be arbitrary and lack robust scientific basis to arrive at threshold values . However, the threshold values are not acceptable because of interactive nature of physical and biological factors .Some argue that good indicators should be user derived as well as policy relevant and highly aggregated . However, aggregation methods do not facilitate decision-making due to the ambiguity of single index arising out of various dimensions of sustainability definitive indicators with defined objective and absolute comparable values act as useful tool in construction and operationalization at farm level sustainability analysis. Certain criterion and indicators applicable for establishing the sustainability indicators at farm level are presented in Table 3. Applicability of sustainability principles to landscape scale has significant potential for buffering the off-site consequences of agriculture at regional, watershed and farm level to take advantage of services provided by contiguous natural, semi-natural and restored ecosystems. These contiguous systems provide suitable habitat for pollinators, predators and parasites contributing for better productivity of cropland in a landscape.

Thus, landscape approach must consider overall maintenance of ecosystem services provided by agro-ecology, which can be evaluated on the scale of sustainability indices. Although many indicator-based sustainability monitoring tools have been developed in the last decade but considerably less effort has been made to validate their applicability . Last decade has seen increasing need to address the agricultural developmental issues from the perspective that incorporates social and ecological dimensions. Participatory action research holds the key and has relevance to raise the queries on the intuitive wisdom of stakeholders on sustainable agro-ecological practices . PAR is an adaptive social research through the integration of scientific basis to improve the overall management approach by the stakeholders. Unlike the extension activities, the close interactions in PAR promote broad participation in the research process and supports action leading to satisfying situation. Moreover, it reliably addresses the integral question of linking the eco-logical conservation initiatives as part of the socio-economic development at local scale.

Farmers have very limited knowledge on pollination and pollinators; they often take pollinators for granted. Most farmers said “these insects are just there, they are part of creation and nature but they do not need to do something to protect them because these insects will always be there”. Farmers said they did not need to care about these small in-sects seen visiting coffee flowers, because they think these small insects are just there resting but they are not harmful neither beneficial to coffee flowers. Most farmers believed that the presence or absence of these insects on coffee flowers does not stop coffee to set fruit. Also farmers believe that coffee fruit set depends largely on shade, fertility and moisture levels and on control of pests and diseases. Farmers who sprayed herbicides to control weeds did not believe that herbicides had negative impact on bees. Previous studies highlighted the fact that small scale farmers growing coffee with a moderated plant density used on average 3 to 10 liters of herbicides ha/year .

This amount is a high compared to what is recommended and it is index to predict at which level pollinators are exposed to herbicides in central Uganda, particularly in regions where farmers are interested in using herbicides to control weeds instead of hand weeding . The reason for which some farmers preferred using herbicide that hand- hoe weeding were not known but probably this could be attributed to the type of extension services they receive . The major contingent of coffee flower pollinators be-longed to the Apoidea group. Other prominent floral visitors comprise species of Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Neither the dependent nor the famous floral visitors are well known by small-scale coffee growers. In fact, mobile vertical rack coffee is reliant to wild bees but farmers are not aware of the role played by these wild bees. Similarly, butterflies are observed flying within coffee trees but farmers believe they are doing nothing to coffee flowers. In fact respondents indicated that honeybee was a frequent visitor of coffee; they were also able to identify and recognize butterflies as vagrant species in the field; however, no farmer could identify how beneficial butterflies may be for coffee in central Uganda. In contrast, farmers know some butterfly species as pests of some crop species like Ipomoea batatus.

This finding suggest that efforts should be but in place by extension services to educate small-scale farmers to appreciate and know different pollinating agents of their important crops like coffee. Extension services should work hard to increase appreciation of the beneficial aspects of some on-farm based animals like butterflies to increase the involvement and commitment of farmers in the conservation of on-farm biodiversity for livelihood improvements in rural areas. Farmers were also not aware that stingless bees played significant role for coffee to produce higher and quality yields. The only bee species that was recognized by farmers was honeybee although majority of farmers perceived that honeybees were just there but their presence or absence could not influence coffee fruit set. Some farmers believed that honeybees collect nectar from coffee but they are not involved in coffee reproduction process. Field observations and surveys indicated that the overall basic knowledge by farmers of eusocial bees that occur in coffee fields was mainly related to their continued utilization for honey  and other hive products. Cultural value plays a significant role in folk knowledge of Apoidea communities by farmers. For example, in Brazil, Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Ghana, Kenya, etc farmers know different bee species in the Meliponini group .

They also know nesting sites of different meliponini bees. Some have developed advanced traditional methods for rearing these species for the production of honey. Hence, meliponi-culture  as a lucrative activity for farmers need to be promoted worldwide based on indigenous knowledge of local communities not only for providing income from sale of hive products  but also as a reliable source of pollination of crops such as coffee, particularly in over-cultivated regions where nesting sites have been degraded in disfavor of establishment of wild ground nesting bee communities that are important crop pollinators in the tropics. Knowledge of pollination is expected from most farmers of central Uganda. However, it seems that the knowledge does not depend on the level of education and more particularly on the age. Central Uganda is in-habited by people of “Baganda” ethnic group. In Uganda, the level of knowledge of pollination seems to be associated with the tribe and the agro-ecological zone.

In The Farm That Won’t Wear Out, Hopkins concluded that: “the intelligent improvement of his soil, in systems of permanent agriculture, is the most profitable business in which the farmer and land owner can engage” . Each of Hopkins’ three books found publishers in their day, but not since, and his three works are now all but forgotten a common fate of agriculture books written a century ago. Having quit the USDA, King embarked on an eight month oriental agricultural tour. He arrived in Yokohama in February 1909 and toured extensively in China, Japan, and, to a much lesser extent, Korea . King died with the book incomplete—it lacks the final chapter and hence his conclusions. In the Introduction to his book, King explains his project: “We had long desired to stand face to face with Chinese and Japanese farmers; to walk through their fields and to learn by seeing some of their methods, appliances and practices which centuries of stress and experience have led these oldest farmers in the world to adopt. We desired to learn how it is possible, after twenty and perhaps thirty or even forty centuries, for their soils to be made to produce sufficiently for the maintenance of such dense populations.

We were instructed, surprised and amazed at the conditions and practices which confronted us whichever way we turned; instructed in the ways and extent to which these nations for centuries have been conserving and utilizing their natural resources” . King foresaw a world movement for agricultural re-form: “China, Korea and Japan long ago struck the key-note of permanent agriculture, but the time has now come when they can and will make great improvements, and it remains for us and other nations to profit by their experience,dutch buckets for sale to adopt and adapt what is good in their practice and help in a world movement for the introduction of new and improved methods” . The publishing history of Farmers of Forty Centuries has been uneven, but it is now enjoying a ‘golden era’. In the decade just passed, sixteen separate publishers offered editions of King’s book. This new proliferation has coincided with technological advances and opportunities including the development of print on demand  technologies for book production, faster scanners, opportunities for short run publishing, online international bookshops, for example Amazon.com, and developing opportunities for order taking and fulfilment, all facilitated by the lapse of copyright and by the growing interest in organic agriculture.

With the proliferation of Farmers of Forty Centuries Although the book Farmers of Forty Centuries continues to gain currency, its defining meme, ‘permanent agriculture’, has gained little traction. The 1929 book Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture is a rare ex-ample which has, since King and Hopkins, used the term as a defining element of its narrative. ‘Permanent agriculture’ was appropriated and contracted to generate the neologism ‘permaculture’ which appeared in the 1978 Tasmanian book of Mollison & Holmgren: Permaculture 1: A perennial agriculture system for human settlements . The contraction is confirmed in the title of the second volume: Permaculture Two: Practical design for town and country in permanent agriculture . in digital and print formats, its future now seems secure. The ‘rescue’ of the book by the London publisher Jonathan Cape in 1927 was a resurrection for the book which was, by then, all but forgotten. The consensus of endorsement of the book by the early organic agriculture pioneers was itself an endorsement of the decision by Jonathan Cape to republish, and it was the London editions that they referenced, rather than the original. Firstly was the timing. King’s championing of soil husbandry was contemporaneous with the development of synthetic fertilizer technology by Haber and Bosch . King’s book preceded the chemical industry’s development of synthetic pesticides, and the US seizure of German chemical patents.

At the same time, “considering high interest rate for bank deposits, the average normative land’s price in Ukraine in present-day conditions is nearly 10 times lower than its real cost”. That is, the present-day price of arable land is $3810/ha. Having considered that the value of 1 ha perennial crop lands is three times higher, and natural forage nearly two times lower than the arable land price, we’ll get the normative starting price for the potential of all agricultural lands in the country to be $159.3 milliard. Here we must remember that we speak about the so-called capitalized estimation of the potential of agricultural lands. With Ukrainian economics’ average normative coefficient of capital investments’ efficiency of 0.15, the value of land potential in this country in yearly proportion will amount to $23.9 milliard. It should be noted that in 1990s we performed calculations of the value of the country’s starting nature-re- source potential in USD equivalent and found the annual average potential of the country’s agricultural lands to be $24.18 milliard. And, as it is evident today, the land price according to I.R. Yukhnovskyy and G.M. Loboda practically coincides with our findings.

In this case, the scale of comparability of the potential of the country’s most important nature resource seems to be very important, since it is the one that allows for application of corresponding conversion coefficients so that we could transform Ukrainian NRP value in nature re- source prices of 1990s into the same of present day nature use development. We believe that the USD/UAH exchange rate of 1:6.3 could become the coefficient that would help converse nature resource cadastre prices of 1990s into those of present day. Thus,dutch buckets system the nature resource potential of Ukraine in yearly proportion and at the pre- sent-day level of prices for nature resources amounts to UAH338.39 milliard.Lands are the major natural productive force in the Carpathian Ukraine, too, though the region features significant territorial differences conditioned by specificity of orographic composition, bifurcated hydro-net and reforestation of the territory. Besides, demographic factor, namely, high population density and small contour of productive lands are also of consider- able effect. This is why land resources in the Zakarpattia and the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblasts miss their headship.It was preceded by comparatively big collective and state- owned economies which enjoyed all advantages of huge formations. Hypothetically, broad-scale farming in Ukraine would be possible and appropriate if potential farmers and the state had sufficient finances to develop both farming enterprises of rational size and adequate market environment.

Farmer-entrepreneur’s formation also takes time. Twenty years of farming in Ukraine are now evidence of a kind of inheritance of farming business. Pre- sent-day state of farming in Ukraine is shown in Table 2. It is agricultural production that is differentiated by territorial diversity of nature-resource potential most essentially, said differentiation conditioning natural productivity of agricultural activity. Nature-resource potential effects upon agricultural production with its whole totality, though the influence of land and water resources is the most fundamental. The Carpathian Region of Ukraine is sufficiently provided with water resources and its hydro-net is rather dense allowing farmers enjoy water stock in full arranging fish farms and irrigating arable crops. Orographic peculiarities of the region and its natural vegetation are the stimuli to formation of farm economies of stock- raising specialization. Land resources in each particular locality determine the focus of arable farming and principal methods of crop cultivation. The major specificity of land use by farming economies is the lands’ highest possible involvement into agricultural production . On the whole, 60% of 2830.3 thousand ha of arable lands available in the Carpathian Region are tilled, whereas the level of tillage in farming economies is 92%. The reason is that the farmers are maximally economically interested to assure for land lease and credit payments. The distribution of land stock in administrative oblasts of the Carpathian Region is presented in Table 3.

Weiss’s analysis of the locust invasion period in the Northern Territory brings to light aspects of governance between the chiefs and the colonial government. In this example, we see aco-construction of governance by the chiefs and colonist to solve problems of famine and hunger in these provinces, as they come together to deliberate and implement strategies agreed upon by all.Even though relief policies were reached, one of the early difficulties was convincing farmers to start cultivating root crops, a practice they had not indulged in before, especially around the Navrongo area. The farmer’s reason for not adopting this new policy in their words are “our fathers never grew them” according to information in the informal diary written on Navrongo community in 1930 cited in . Here we see the farmers resisting change and governance policies by the colonist using historical recollections of their farming experiences and practices. The unavailability of digging sticks and enough seedlings also posed a challenge to this large scale project. This project to introduce root crop to farmers in the Navrongo area was later aborted. argued that this project was a “colonial propaganda” used to showcase colonial interventions in reducing famine and hunger, where more effective and efficient interventions could be done but were not done.

This “colonial propaganda”led to increased yam cultivation in other areas like Wala, where changes in household food consumption were noticed. Yam consumption increased compared to that of other staples.The women also preferred yams preparation to maize,millet or guinea corn which was more labour intensive. Communal yam farms were developed in the Builsa Native administration and Lawra-Tuma district.The Dagombas who were already known to cultivate yams produced surpluses which were exported to Kumasi and Accra in the South. Here we see how governmental intervention by the colonial government has reshaped the agricultural practice of its subjects the farmers who diversified their crop production.Rice was also given special attention by the colonial government for a while when they thought it could be a future cash crop, hydroponic gutter that will boost the economy of the Northern territories. Rice was chosen because it was not affected by the locust and had potentials of being a cash earner for the local farmers with the intend of reducing poverty and hunger, but also it was meant to provide funds for the colonial government if they operated large farms and exported it back home.This project partially succeeded as farmers started planting rice, but it did not attain the potentials for export. The traditional fast maturing guinea corn seeds from the Southern province known as red guinea corn or Kajie were also introduced in the Northern province, but little is said about the success of this particular project.

Lynn, C. W. an agricultural Superintendent proposed alternatives and diverse crops like pigeon peas , cassava and sesamumto remedy the food shortages caused by locustinvasions.Despite efforts put in place to promote the cultivation of alternative crops,some colonial agricultural experts like Shepard, C. Y, argued that the Northern territories is the most problematic part of the Gold Coast. Plagued by irregular rainfall, poor soils, bush fires, locust invasion and rinder pest epidemics which are detrimental to any agricultural activity. Shepard pointed out that another factor which slowed down agricultural growth was the conservative and somewhat primitive social organisation of the people contributing to food shortages in this region. This positioning of natives in the minds of the colonial administrators greatly differed,as some District Commissioners believed the natives could solve their own socio-economic problems with and without aid from the colonialist. This shift in the mindset of colonialist about the native’s potentials contributed to the introduction of a more modern, technical and scientific approach to the economiccris is in the Northern Territories to improve the well being of the people.Sutton states that sporadic attempts were made at generating a cash economy in the North as “experimental agricultural and livestock schemes were initiated, dropped and revived several times in the course of the colonial period”.