Maximize Your Yield with Hydroponic Grow Systems

Maximize Your Yield with Hydroponic Grow Systems

In today’s modern world, gardening has taken on a whole new level of sophistication and efficiency with the advent of hydroponic grow systems. Gone are the days of traditional soil-based gardening, as more and more people are discovering the numerous benefits of hydroponics. Whether you are a seasoned gardener or just starting out, hydroponic grow systems offer a revolutionary way to maximize your yield and achieve incredible results. In this article, we will explore the world of hydroponics and discuss how these innovative systems can completely transform the way you grow your plants. So get ready to dive into the wonderful world of hydroponic grow systems and unlock the potential for higher yields and healthier plants.

Understanding the Basics of Hydroponic Growing

Hydroponic growing is a modern method of cultivating plants without the use of soil. This innovative technique relies on a nutrient-rich water solution to provide essential minerals and elements directly to the plant’s roots. By eliminating the need for soil, hydroponic grow systems offer numerous advantages, such as faster growth rates, decreased water usage, and efficient space utilization. Understanding the basics of hydroponic growing is essential for those interested in exploring this sustainable and highly productive method of gardening.

One of the key components in a hydroponic system is the nutrient reservoir, where the nutrient solution is held. This solution is carefully balanced with the necessary elements, ensuring plants receive all the essential nutrients they require to thrive. The plants’ roots are typically suspended in this solution or in a growing medium such as perlite or rockwool, which provides support.

In addition to providing essential nutrients, hydroponic systems also require adequate oxygenation for the plants’ roots. This is achieved by using air stones or diffusers to oxygenate the nutrient solution. By promoting healthy root development, plants can absorb nutrients more efficiently, leading to accelerated growth rates compared to traditional soil-based gardening.

When it comes to hydroponic grow systems, there are various types to choose from, including nutrient film technique (NFT), deep water culture (DWC), and ebb and flow. Each system has its own advantages and considerations regarding maintenance, space requirements, and nutrient delivery. So, it’s important to research and choose the system that best suits your specific gardening needs and resources.

In conclusion, hydroponic growing provides a sustainable and efficient way to cultivate plants without soil. By understanding the basics of hydroponics, individuals can benefit from increased crop yields, reduced water consumption, and year-round gardening possibilities. Exploring this innovative gardening method can be a rewarding journey for those looking to enhance their green thumb and embrace a more sustainable approach to growing plants.

Choosing the Right Hydroponic System for Your Plants

​When it comes to indoor gardening, hydroponic systems have been gaining popularity. Offering a controlled environment for plants to thrive, hydroponics can be a great solution for those who lack outdoor space or have limited sunlight. However, choosing the right hydroponic system for your plants can be a daunting task. With a wide range of options available, it’s important to consider factors such as space, budget, and plant type.

Firstly, assess the available space you have for your hydroponic grow. Different systems require different amounts of space, so it’s essential to choose one that fits your needs. For smaller spaces, a vertical hydroponic system may be the best option as it allows plants to grow vertically, maximizing the use of space. On the other hand, if you have a large area at your disposal, a wick system or deep water culture system can accommodate more plants.

Secondly, consider your budget. Hydroponic systems can vary greatly in price, from simple and affordable setups to more complex and expensive ones. While it’s tempting to go for the latest and greatest system, remember that it’s more important to choose a system that fits your budget and provides optimal conditions for your plants.

Lastly, think about the type of plants you want to grow using hydroponics. Different plants have different nutrient requirements and growth habits. For example, leafy greens like lettuce and spinach thrive in a nutrient film technique (NFT) system, while fruiting plants like tomatoes and peppers prefer a drip system. Research the specific requirements of your plants to ensure you select the right hydroponic system for their needs.

In conclusion, choosing the right hydroponic system for your plants involves considering several factors such as space, budget, and plant type. By assessing your available space, determining your budget, and understanding the specific requirements of your plants, you can make an informed decision. Remember to do thorough research and seek advice from experienced hydroponic growers to ensure your plants flourish in their new hydroponic environment.

Essential Components for a Successful Hydroponic Setup

​If you’re interested in growing plants without soil, a hydroponic setup is just what you need. Hydroponic growing involves providing plants with the right nutrients and water directly to their roots, leading to faster growth and higher yields. To ensure a successful hydroponic grow, here are a few essential components you need to consider.

First and foremost, you’ll need a suitable growing system. There are various options available, such as nutrient film technique (NFT), deep water culture (DWC), and drip systems. Each system has its own benefits and requirements, so choose one that fits your needs and space constraints.

Next, proper lighting is crucial for the growth and development of your plants. Since hydroponic setups are usually grown indoors, you’ll need to invest in high-quality LED or fluorescent lights. These lights provide the necessary spectrum of light for photosynthesis and can be adjusted based on the growth stage of your plants.

A nutrient-rich solution is a key element in hydroponics. Unlike traditional soil gardening, where plants extract nutrients from the soil, hydroponics requires a precise mix of nutrients to be added to the water. Nutrient solutions can be purchased commercially or mixed yourself using water-soluble fertilizers. Regular monitoring and adjusting of nutrient levels will be necessary to ensure optimal plant growth.

Lastly, maintaining a stable environment is essential for hydroponic success. Temperature, humidity, and airflow control are critical factors to consider. An ideal temperature range is typically between 65°F to 75°F (18°C to 24°C), while humidity levels should be maintained around 50-70%. Additionally, proper airflow helps prevent the growth of pests and diseases while facilitating gas exchange for healthy plant growth.

In conclusion, a successful hydroponic setup requires the right components and careful monitoring. Choose the appropriate growing system, provide adequate lighting, maintain nutrient solutions, and create a stable environment for your hydroponic grow. With the proper setup, you’ll be able to enjoy the benefits of hydroponics and cultivate lush, healthy plants all year round.

Nutrient Management in Hydroponic Growing

​Hydroponic growing is rapidly gaining popularity among gardeners and farmers alike. This innovative method of cultivation allows plants to thrive without the use of soil, relying instead on a nutrient-rich water solution. However, the success of hydroponic grow systems heavily depends on proper nutrient management.

In a soilless environment, plants are solely dependent on the nutrients provided through the water solution. It is crucial to maintain the correct balance of essential nutrients for optimal growth and productivity. This requires careful monitoring and adjustment of the nutrient levels, as well as understanding the specific needs of each plant.

One important aspect of nutrient management in hydroponic growing is maintaining the ideal pH level. Different plants have different pH preferences, and maintaining the correct range ensures that the nutrients are available to the roots. Regular testing and adjustment of the pH levels are essential to prevent nutrient deficiencies or toxicities.

Another key consideration is using a high-quality nutrient solution specifically formulated for hydroponic cultivation. These solutions contain all the essential nutrients in the correct ratios, ensuring that the plants receive everything they need for healthy growth. It is important to follow the recommended guidelines provided by the manufacturer and make necessary adjustments based on the plants’ requirements.

Additionally, maintaining cleanliness in the hydroponic system is crucial for nutrient management. Regularly cleaning and sterilizing the equipment helps prevent the buildup of algae, pathogens, and mineral deposits that can negatively impact nutrient availability. A well-maintained system ensures that the plants can effectively absorb the nutrients, promoting optimal growth and productivity.

In conclusion, nutrient management is paramount in hydroponic growing. From maintaining the right pH levels to using high-quality nutrient solutions and keeping the system clean, every aspect plays a role in creating an ideal environment for robust plant growth. By focusing on proper nutrient management techniques, hydroponic growers can enjoy the benefits of a productive and sustainable cultivation method.

Lighting Solutions for Hydroponic Growth

​Hydroponic grow systems have become increasingly popular in recent years, allowing individuals to cultivate plants in an indoor environment without soil. However, one crucial aspect that often gets overlooked is the importance of proper lighting solutions for hydroponic growth. In order to mimic natural sunlight, it is necessary to provide the plants with the right spectrum and intensity of light.

LED grow lights have emerged as the go-to choice for hydroponic growers due to their energy efficiency and customizable options. With LED lights, growers can select specific wavelengths of light that are most beneficial for the different stages of plant growth. For example, blue light promotes vegetative growth, while red light encourages flowering and fruiting. This flexibility allows growers to optimize the lighting conditions for their specific plant species.

Another popular lighting solution is High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lights, which have been used for years in traditional horticulture. HPS lights emit a high intensity of orange-red light, which promotes flowering and improves crop yields. However, these lights can generate excessive heat, requiring efficient cooling systems to maintain the desired temperature range.

Fluorescent lights, such as T5 and T8, are also commonly used in hydroponic growth. These lights are affordable and produce a wide spectrum of light that can support plants in all growth stages. However, they are not as energy-efficient as LED lights, and the light intensity may be insufficient for some high-light plants.

Ultimately, choosing the right lighting solution for hydroponic grow systems depends on factors such as plant species, grow space, and budget. LED lights offer the most flexibility and energy efficiency, making them an ideal choice for many growers. However, HPS lights and fluorescent lights can still be effective options for specific circumstances. Whichever lighting solution is chosen, it is important to regularly monitor the plants’ response and adjust the lighting setup accordingly to ensure optimal growth and yield.

Maintaining Optimal pH Levels in Hydroponic Systems

​Hydroponic systems have been gaining popularity among indoor gardeners for their ability to produce high-quality crops year-round. In these systems, plants are grown in nutrient-rich water instead of soil, making it crucial to maintain the optimal pH levels for optimal growth. Maintaining the right pH level in your hydroponic system is essential for the overall health and productivity of your plants.

The ideal pH range for most hydroponic crops is between 5.5 and 6.5. Outside of this range, plants may struggle to absorb essential nutrients, leading to stunted growth and nutrient deficiencies. To ensure a stable pH level, regular monitoring and adjustment are necessary. Invest in a pH meter or test kit to regularly check the pH of the nutrient solution. If the pH drifts outside the desired range, pH adjusters such as phosphoric acid or potassium hydroxide can be used to bring it back to the optimal levels.

Maintaining a consistent pH level is especially important in hydroponic systems because the absence of soil buffers makes the pH more prone to fluctuations. The addition of nutrients and water evaporation can also contribute to changes in pH. Regularly check and adjust the pH level throughout the growing cycle to prevent any imbalances that could negatively impact your plants.

In conclusion, maintaining optimal pH levels is crucial for successful hydroponic grow. By regularly monitoring and adjusting the pH of your nutrient solution, you can ensure that your plants have adequate access to essential nutrients. Consistency is key, so be sure to check pH levels regularly and make adjustments as necessary. Taking the time to maintain the right pH levels will pay off in the form of healthy, thriving plants and bountiful harvests in your hydroponic system.

The Role of Oxygen in Hydroponic Plant Growth

​Hydroponic growing is a revolutionary method of cultivating plants that eliminates the need for traditional soil-based methods. Instead, plants are grown in a water-based, nutrient-rich solution that provides all the essential elements for their growth. But there’s another crucial element that plays a significant role in hydroponic plant growth – oxygen.

Oxygen is essential for the survival of any living organism, including plants. In hydroponic systems, it plays a critical role in supporting plant respiration and nutrient uptake. The roots of plants in hydroponic setups are submerged in water, and without adequate oxygenation, they can become waterlogged and suffocate.

To ensure optimal plant growth in hydroponic systems, it’s crucial to maintain proper oxygen levels in the nutrient solution. This is typically achieved by incorporating various oxygenation techniques, such as air stones or diffusers, which introduce bubbles of oxygen into the water. These bubbles create movement in the nutrient solution, promoting efficient nutrient absorption and preventing stagnant water conditions.

By providing plants with an adequate oxygen supply in hydroponic systems, growers can enhance the overall health and vigor of their plants. Improved oxygenation not only supports nutrient uptake but also boosts root development, leading to stronger and more resilient plants. Additionally, oxygen-enriched water can help prevent the growth of harmful pathogens and algae, reducing the risk of plant diseases.

In conclusion, oxygen is an indispensable element in hydroponic plant growth. Its role in supporting plant respiration, nutrient uptake, and overall well-being cannot be overlooked. Hydroponic growers must prioritize maintaining proper oxygen levels in their systems through effective oxygenation techniques. By doing so, they can ensure optimal plant growth and harvest healthy, vibrant crops all year round.

Troubleshooting Common Issues in Hydroponic Growing

​Hydroponic growing has gained immense popularity in recent years due to its efficiency and sustainability. However, like any gardening method, it is not exempt from challenges. Troubleshooting common issues in hydroponic growing is an essential skill that every grower should possess to ensure optimal plant health and productivity.

One of the most common problems in hydroponic growing is nutrient deficiency. Since hydroponic systems rely on nutrient solutions instead of soil, it’s crucial to maintain the right balance of essential minerals for plants to thrive. Monitoring pH levels and adjusting nutrient mixtures accordingly can prevent deficiencies and promote healthy growth.

Another frequent issue is the build-up of algae and other unwanted organisms in the nutrient solution. Algae growth can be controlled by adding UV sterilizers or using a reflective material to cover the reservoirs. Additionally, regular cleaning of the system and maintaining proper circulation can prevent bacterial growth and clogging in the pipes.

Maintaining proper temperature and humidity levels is also vital in hydroponic grow systems. High temperatures can cause stress to plants and lead to reduced yields, while low humidity can affect nutrient uptake. Investing in ventilation systems and monitoring tools such as thermometers and hygrometers can help ensure the optimal environment for plant growth and prevent potential problems.

In conclusion, troubleshooting common issues in hydroponic growing is necessary to achieve successful and productive yields. By being proactive in identifying and addressing nutrient deficiencies, preventing algae growth, and maintaining an optimal environment, growers can enjoy healthy plants and abundant harvests all year round. With the right knowledge and care, hydroponics offers an exciting and efficient way to cultivate plants for both personal and commercial use.

Scaling Up: Expanding Your Hydroponic Operation

​In the world of indoor gardening, hydroponic systems have gained significant popularity due to their efficiency and ability to produce high-quality crops. As a hydroponic grower, you may start small with a few plants, but as you gain experience and success, the desire to scale up your operation becomes inevitable. Expanding your hydroponic grow can be an exciting and rewarding endeavor, but it requires careful planning and consideration.

Before jumping into expanding your hydroponic operation, it is important to assess the available space and resources. Determine if you have enough space to accommodate a larger system and if your current infrastructure can support the increased demand. Plan out the layout and organization of your expanded grow, ensuring that each plant receives the appropriate amount of light, water, and nutrients.

Next, consider the financial aspect of scaling up. Expanding your hydroponic grow may require additional investments in equipment, supplies, and maintenance. Calculate the costs involved and create a budget to ensure you can afford the expansion. It may also be worth exploring opportunities for funding or partnerships to help offset the expenses.

When scaling up, it is crucial to maintain the same level of attention and care for your plants. With a larger operation, it becomes essential to implement efficient systems for monitoring and managing your hydroponic grow. Consider automating certain tasks, such as nutrient delivery or lighting schedules, to optimize your workflow and reduce the risk of human error.

In conclusion, expanding your hydroponic operation can be a fulfilling journey for indoor gardeners. However, it requires careful planning, sufficient space, and financial considerations. With the right approach and attention to detail, scaling up your hydroponic grow can lead to increased productivity and success in the world of indoor gardening. So, take the leap and watch your hydroponic operation flourish!

Innovations in Hydroponic Technology

​Hydroponic technology has revolutionized the way we grow plants by providing an efficient and sustainable solution for modern agriculture. With advancements in hydroponic systems, farmers and gardeners can now cultivate plants without the need for soil. This innovative approach to gardening enables plants to thrive in a nutrient-rich water solution, leading to faster growth rates and higher yields.

One of the most significant innovations in hydroponic technology is the development of vertical farming systems. These vertical setups allow growers to maximize their space by stacking multiple layers of hydroponic grow beds vertically. By utilizing vertical space, farmers can increase their production capacity significantly while reducing land and water usage. This advancement is particularly beneficial for urban environments where space is limited.

Another remarkable innovation in hydroponic technology is the use of advanced monitoring systems. These systems come equipped with sensors that constantly measure essential parameters such as temperature, humidity, pH levels, and nutrient concentration in the water solution. This real-time data allows growers to closely monitor and adjust the growing conditions, ensuring optimal plant growth. By precisely controlling and maintaining these parameters, hydroponic growers can create an ideal environment for their plants, resulting in healthier and more productive crops.

Furthermore, hydroponic technology has also seen progress in automation and remote control capabilities. Growers can now remotely monitor and control their hydroponic systems through smartphone applications or computer software. This technological development enables farmers to manage their operations more efficiently by remotely adjusting the environmental conditions and nutrient levels in their grow beds. The automation of tasks such as watering, nutrient dosing, and lighting schedules further streamlines the hydroponic growing process.

In conclusion, hydroponic technology has opened up new possibilities for agriculture by providing innovative solutions for sustainable plant cultivation. With advances in vertical farming systems, advanced monitoring systems, and automation, hydroponic growers can optimize their production capacity while reducing resource consumption. As we continue to witness advancements in hydroponic technology, we can expect even more efficient and productive methods of growing plants without soil.

How To Make A Nft Hydroponic System

To create an NFT (Nutrient Film Technique) hydroponic system, you will need the following materials and tools:

Materials:

  1. Growing channels or troughs (typically made of PVC or other suitable materials)
  2. Submersible water pump
  3. PVC pipes and connectors
  4. Growing media (such as Rockwool cubes or net pots)
  5. Nutrient solution
  6. Timer for controlling the water pump
  7. pH and EC meters for monitoring nutrient levels
  8. Light source appropriate for your plants
  9. Reservoir or tank for holding the nutrient solution
  10. Air pump and air stones (optional but recommended for oxygenation)

Tools:

  1. Saw or pipe cutter
  2. Drill with appropriate drill bits
  3. Measuring tape
  4. Screwdriver or wrench for tightening connectors

Here are the general steps to set up an NFT hydroponic system:

  1. Design and prepare the channels: Determine the size and layout of your growing channels. Cut the PVC pipes or troughs to the desired length and attach them to the frame or support structure.
  2. Set up the water pump: Install the submersible water pump in the reservoir or tank. Connect the pump to the PVC pipes or channels using suitable connectors and tubing. Ensure the pump is capable of providing a gentle flow of nutrient solution.
  3. Create a slope: Position the channels at a slight angle to allow the nutrient solution to flow from one end to the other. A slope of 1:30 to 1:40 is generally recommended.
  4. Install the growing media: Place the Rockwool cubes or net pots with your plant seedlings or clones into the channels, ensuring that the roots are exposed to the flowing nutrient solution.
  5. Connect the system: Connect the water pump to a timer, which will regulate the on/off cycles to maintain the desired nutrient flow. Set the timer to periodically pump the nutrient solution through the channels, allowing it to flow over the roots and then drain back into the reservoir.
  6. Mix and monitor the nutrient solution: Prepare the nutrient solution according to the instructions provided by the manufacturer. Regularly monitor the pH and electrical conductivity (EC) levels of the solution and adjust as necessary to maintain optimal plant health.
  7. Provide adequate lighting: Place suitable grow lights above the channels to provide the necessary light intensity and spectrum for plant growth. Adjust the height and duration of lighting based on the requirements of your plants.
  8. Oxygenate the solution (optional): If desired, connect an air pump and air stones to provide additional oxygenation to the nutrient solution. This helps ensure the roots receive sufficient oxygen for healthy growth.
  9. Monitor and maintain: Regularly check the system for proper flow, nutrient levels, and overall plant health. Keep an eye out for clogs, pests, or any other issues that may arise.

Remember to research and adjust the system parameters based on the specific requirements of your plants. Hydroponic gardening requires precise monitoring and adjustments to ensure optimal growth and yield.

Income inequality was the highest among farmers with farmland located far from homestead

The vegetation of the area is extremely variable ranging from drier lowland coastal forest to transitional rainforests, sub-montane, montane and upper montane forest types, as well as the afromontane grasslands on the Lukwangule plateau. All these ecosystems are rich in endemic species making them of high conservation priority. However, land degradation in the area is rampant due to existence of unsustainable anthropologic activities . The mountains also serve as a water catchment and water source for populations living downstream in Morogoro rural and Municipality as well as other residents in the Dar es Salaam City and the Ruvu/Wami River Catchments. Thus, we purposefully selected the study area not only for its importance as a water catchment, but also as an enormous biodiversity hotspot which is encountered by the challenge of increasing human activities that threaten biodiversity and environmental integrity.

The study used the multi-stage sampling procedure to select the study villages and sample households. The third stage entailed the selection of sample households from each stratum using the proportionate probability sampling procedure. The purpose of using wealth ranks, apart from understanding the perceptions of communities in the study area about poverty and wealth gained from the wealth ranking exercise, was to ensure that the sample drawn and quantitative analyses represent the full range of livelihoodcircumstances in the study area, rather than being accidentally clustered around the mode of range. The distribution of sample size by hamlets is given in Table 1. The study used both primary and secondary data. Prior to commencement of fieldwork, we hired six enumerators to assist during data collection. These were trained on how to administer questionnaires and use other research tools . They were also reminded about the research ethics they should comply with. The actual fieldwork started with a reconnaissance survey to get an overview and understanding of the study area and applicability of the questionnaire. During the reconnaissance survey the household questionnaire was pre-test to a small number of respondents before the actual fieldwork to check for their relevance to the study area and objectives. This was followed by the main survey which used different research tools and techniques, including structured questionnaires, interviews with key informants and Focus Group Discussions .

The FGDs were attended by at least 10 participants per village representing different socioeconomic groups that existed in the area, including the rich, poor, youth and women, men, abled and disabled people. In addition, direct observation served as a complementary tool. In selecting the key informants for interview the snowball technique was used. The technique is particularly suitable when the population of interest is hard to reach and compiling a list of the population poses difficulties for the researcher . It begins with a convenience number of initial subject which serves as “seeds,” through which wave 1 subject is identified; wave 1 subject, in turn, identifies wave 2 subjects; and the number of interviewees consequently expands wave by wave-like a snowball growing in size as it rolls down a hill .The results of qualitative analysis poverty using the wealth ranking results were complemented with quantitative analysis of income inequality and drivers of income inequality using the Gini coefficient and Lorenz curves, as well as, the coefficient of variation measure adapted from Adams . The percentile shares quantify the proportions of total outcome that go to different groups defined in terms of their relative ranks in the distribution . The approach provides more details about the processes that cause the various distribution changes which may either increase or decrease the Gini coefficient . The percentile shares approach is more useful in cases where time series data is used but it also compliments the analysis of income inequality using cross-sectional data. The approach addresses the interpretation limitation inherent in specific values of the Gini coefficient .

As mentioned earlier, the Gini index is a widely used and favoured measure of income inequality over other alternatives because this index can be applied to both time series and cross-sectional data simultaneously . The value of the Gini Index ranges from 0 to 1. With the value 1,the Gini coefficient represents perfect unequal distribution of income, while with the value 0, it represents perfect equality of income . Links with the Lorenz curve make the Gini coefficient an attractive statistic for the decomposition by income components, as the Lorenz curve graphically represents the Gini coefficient. The concentration coefficient of each income component with respect to total income is obtained from a concentration curve . However, it should be noted here that, the Gini coefficient cannot be used to rank distributions if the Lorenz curves intersect. According to Litchfield , there are alternative ways to decompose the Gini, however the component terms of total inequality are not always intuitively or mathematically appealing.

Chemosit and Kipsonoi rivers traverses through different land use types

Soil pH was determined using a pH meter. In this case, six distinct land use activities were identified along based on their dominant land uses and characteristics. Generally there is a variation in land use activities from upstream to downstream. Upstream is dominated by indigenous forest characterized by dense network of trees and bushes with little human disturbance. From the edge of the forests towards midstream, the land opens up to a rich upland agricultural area of extensive and intensive farming characterized by tea plantation and few human settlements. Moving downstream, grazing and mixed agricultural farming predominate with more permanently settled small scale farmers and urban set-up with high population and economic activities.Upstream riparian vegetation was least disturbed with native vegetation present on both sides of the river, intact canopy and with continuous woody vegetation along the riparian zone, dense ground cover and river banks in natural condition.

Midstream riparian vegetation is in poor condition characterized by isolated woody vegetation, limited ground cover and disturbed banks. In addition there is a high disturbance of the riparian zone by stock or through the intrusion of exotic species, although some native species remain. Valley vegetation is clearly agriculture with native vegetation clearly disturbed and with a high percentage of introduced species present. Downstream riparian vegetation is severely disturbed on both sides as indicated by reduced and absence of riparian vegetation.During the study period, significant differences were observed in Water pH and Total Nitrogen between sampling sites. Tukey’s test showed that the mean water pH at upstream sampling site differed significantly from that recorded at downstream of Chemosit river. Along Kipsonoi river, the mean water pH differed significantly between midstream and Downstream sampling sites. In both rivers, the mean value for water pH ranged from 6.9 to 7.2 . However these values fall within the pH range associated with most natural waters of 6.5 to 8.5 . Most ecosystems are sensitive to changes in pH while certain organisms prefer different ranges of pH . The reported land use activities in SWMF do not seem to modify the pH of the water. Indeed soils and land use activities affect the proportion of major ions in water bodies and hence the water pH . On the other hand, along Chemosit river significant differences were observed in total nitrogen between upstream and midstream sampling sites and between upstream and downstream along Kipsonoi river, respectively.

The high Total Nitrogen concentrations of 6.7 mg/l and 5.7 mg/l observed midstream of the two rivers could be associated with adjacent urban and agricultural land use activities. According to agricultural activities can lead to an increased flux of nitrogen into water bodies while use of fertilizers on agricultural land has been associated to high nutrient levels at such sites . Further, total suspended solids, potassium, total phosphorous, cadmium, lead and copper did not however show any significant differences. Total Suspended Solids were highest midstream on both rivers. This variation could be associated to the different land use activities reported for these sites, run-off from agriculture, soil erosion as well as in- stream activities such as car washing. Presence of indigenous forests, absence of agricultural activities, intact riparian zones characterized by dense vegetation explain the low levels of Total Suspended Solids in the upstream of the two rivers . However total suspended solids in SWMF ranged from 24 – 84 mg/l which is below WHO limits of 1000 mg/l of suspended solids of drinking water. Total phosphorous concentrations increased downstream with the highest concentration recorded at midstream and lowest at upstream on both rivers. Natural concen-trations of phosphorous in surface waters usually range from 0.005 to 0.02 mg/l, while the Environmental Protection Agency recommends a 0.1 mg/l for aquatic systems to prevent accelerated eutrophication . Low concentrations of total phosphorus recorded upstream of Chemosit and Kipsonoi rivers is linked to the undisturbed dense network of trees.

In undisturbed forested areas, streams are believed to have good water quality with low concentration of nutrients . The dense riparian vegetation within the forest land use are effective buffers in filtering out most of the nutrients from the surface run-off . These findings mirror previous studies that concluded that water quality is greatly linked to land use in a catchment and confirms several studies that have shown agriculture and urban land use as a primary predictor for nitrogen and phosphorous in stream water . The amount of heavy metals represented by Cd, Cu and Pb did not differ significantly across sites and their concentration did not follow any trend from upstream to downstream. These results agree with previous study that metal concentrations at sites located relatively high up in the catchment were comparable to, or higher than concentrations of these metals downstream. These values are linked to effluent discharge, agricultural and urban run-off, washing and bathing activities by local inhabitants and livestock access to the rivers. In addition degradation of the forest cover and other anthropogenic activities going on inside the forest, atmospheric deposition and geology weathering are potential sources of these metal ions . The low soil pH upstream might be due to the presence of slightly higher organic carbon content in the soil. Variability in total organic carbon along the two river systems is linked to the reduction in organic material being returned to the soil system due to decreasing vegetation cover downstream and oxidation of soil organic matter as a result of continuous cultivation along the riverbanks, uncontrolled grazing and browsing, loss of organic matter by water erosion and removal of green materials.

These results are in agreement with other studies that reported that the soil organic content differed with different land use types . The higher organic matter content upstream may be attributed to a higher accumulation of organic matter due to high inputs from root biomass . Variability in total nitrogen is linked to difference in soil organic matter content, intensities in cultivation and erosion, application of manures, pesticides and fertilizers rich in nitrogen content in the soils.In this study , soil pH ranged between 4.42 and 5.56, implying the soils are strongly acidic and suitable for tea production which was consistent with previous studies carried out in tea plantations . Soil pH was lowest in soils obtained Upstream on both rivers, with significant differences across the sampling sites. Tukey’s test showed that soil pH at upstream differed significantly from soil pH recorded midstream and downstream of Chemosit and Kipsonoi rivers.