Category: hydroponic agriculture

GAP and GHP are the better tools for competing to the international market and for fulfilling the production standard’s requirement .Rwanda Government has identified Tourism Sector as a priority sector to facilitate the achievement of the country’s development goals. Rwanda’s current Sustainable Tourism Master Plan recommends the formation of business linkages across the supply chains, especially for agricultural produce and handicrafts from the rural sector, in order to spread the benefits of tourism more widely. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy particularly in the rural areas where incomes and employment are mainly dependent on the sector . The aim of this study was to assess the potential contribution of the Coffee Based Tourism on the Rwandan coffee sector. The second part shat the possible contribution of coffee based tourism on the coffee sector,the last section discusses different factors that may affect the success of this new tourism product. Coffee plays a major role in the Rwandan economy. It contributes significantly to foreign exchange earnings and to the monetization of the rural economy.However, mobile vertical rack the Rwandan coffee is less than 1% of the world market and it has no influence on futures prices.

Rwanda coffee price is depending on New York coffee market, and the increase or decrease of the New York coffee market directly affect to the Rwanda coffee price . Taking only into account quality and volume, Rwanda has little competitive advantage compared to the other specialty coffee producing countries in East Arica, where its competitive advantage is very much related to its “storytelling” capacity, its pricing, its Coffee Washing Station infrastructure, and the ease of traveling and doing business.Many researchers have demonstrated how the Rwandan tourism products should be diversified  and recommended that coffee should be regarded as tourism product add-on. However,only one research on coffee based tourism was conducted by Anbalagan & Lovelock.This study identified the possible contribution of coffee based tourism to the Rwanda Development. The study was published in 2014, eight years ago, yet the recommended coffee based tourism is not yet developed and marketed along other new tourism products the Rwandan government is selling. The aim of this study is to extend the study of Anbalagan & Lovelock  by analyzing the potential contributions of coffee based tourism to the coffee sector in Rwanda,focusing on Nyamasheke district. This district is number one in producing more coffee in Rwanda according to .

This study was guided by the following objectives; to assess the potential contribution of Coffee based tourism to the coffee sector in Nyamasheke district; and to identify factors that may promote or hinder the coffee based tourism development in the case studied. According to the last coffee census of 2015, in Rwanda there are 355,771 coffee growers, with 89,726,809 of total coffee trees vertical grow rack that covered the area of 35,891 ha.In Rwanda also, there are 245 coffee washing station with the processing capacity of 104,600 tons of coffee cherries per season . The National Strategic for Transformation  has shown that the percentage of fully washed coffee is targeted at 80% of total production by 2024, while the productivity per tree should by that time have increased to 4 kg .Coffee production in Rwanda was introduced in 1904 by German missionaries.

Since the early 1950s, it has gradually undergone substantial development resulting from proper farm management. Owing to Rwandan soil characteristics,which are suitable for coffee production, coffee plantations are found in all four provinces of the country. Arabica coffee occupies approximately 95% of the country’s total coffee plantations and is mostly planted at higher altitudes in the Southern,Northern, and Western Provinces of Rwanda. Robusta coffee comprises the remaining 5% and is planted at lower altitudes below 1400 m in the Eastern Province. Despite its significant contribution in the Rwandan economy, the coffee production sector is facing a number of challenges, mainly low productivity. Coffee yields in most of the East African counties lag behind Latin-America and Asia.In Rwanda, the average annual coffee yields varied between 1.5 and 2 tons per ha from 2012 to 2016. In contrast, in the same period, the average annual coffee yields were around 8 tons per ha in Colombia, Venezuela, and Indonesia.

Knowledge of reasons for keeping animals is a prerequisite for deriving operational breeding goals. Table 4 summarizes reasons of keeping goats and the ranking of these purposes by owners. The most frequently reported reason for keeping goat was cash income generation followed by milk and meat production for home use. This implies that sale of goats to generate cash constitute the primary purpose among the other benefits of keeping goats in the area. This was also observed in similar studies, who reported that cash income as the most important reason in goat farming. However, the purpose of keeping goats in rural areas of South Africa is mainly for traditional purposes and meat consumption .Huge ruminant animals such as goats are kept and a vast area of land is cultivated. Overall cropland holding of small-scale and large-scale farmers was observed to be 4.10 and 86.90 hectares, respectively. This indicates that there is huge crop residue production in the area, a considerable source of goat feed. Normally, crop residues are grazed or stockpiled for animal feeding.In some cases,bato buckets the stored residues are sold during the critical period of feed scarcity.

Sorghum crop residues are by far the most abundant feed resource in the area. The different feed resources reported in the area were natural pasture, browse species, crop residue and crop aftermath. Private grazing land was not common in the area. It was reported that communal grazing was the most abundant feed source for goat in the area though grazing drastically reduces in the dry season.Indigenous browse species are available feed resources for goats mainly in the dry season and the drought periods . Crop residue and crop aftermath grazing were the other vital feed resources of goat during crop harvesting and after harvesting has occurred. Animals feed on the residue in two ways. The harvested crop residue is stacked near to homestead and fed to selected group of animals in the dry season. Otherwise, standing residue is left for grazing. However, the expansion of cropland, increase in livestock population and area enclosure are negatively affecting feed resource in the area. Water resource is pertinent and vital for the subsistent life of livestock and livestock owners. In the study area, river, pond and borehole form the major source of water for domestic use and livestock watering. Indeed, water points are limited and large number of animals watered at the same water points leading to high chances of spreading diseases and land degradation.

There were only two government constructed water points. Besides, private water points were very few.Distance to water points varied with season and was invariably longer during the dry season. This posed challenges to breeders and sometimes limited access to water. A large proportion of the respondents travel 6 – 10 km to water their animals in the dry season. While in the wet season 67.33% of the total respondents watered their animals at a distance of less than 1 km. Shorter watering frequencies were used to water animals in the area. The proportions of the respondents that watered their goats once a day and twice in a day were 82% and18%,dutch bucket hydroponic respectively. Watering with more than a day frequency is not reported. Based on personal observations and interviewed households’ information, goats were housed with sheep in nights. None of the respondents had provision for accommodating different age groups. Only sick ones and newly born kids/lambs were retained alone in sheds. Sheds were constructed of locally available materials.Sheds were not permanent as animals migrate from place to place in search of feed and water. However, farmers in urban areas used permanent houses separated from or attached to their homesteads. Diseases are a major constraint to the improvement of livestock industry in the tropics as they decrease production and increase the morbidity and mortality. The most commonly prevailing diseases which hamper goat production in the study area are presented in Table 5. Respondents indicated that diseases affect all age groups of goats and mortalities from disease are high. More than half of the sampled respondents were able to separate between the different diseases.

Farmers can also walk in the farm areas while tracking the farmland with Global Positioning System  device to capture the total area .In 2005, the World Economic Forum announced 500 million peripheral devices are linked to the Internet, 8 billion are connected presently, and it is predicted to be 1 trillion in 2030 . These technological devices have facilitated agriculture and the art of agriculture with a prediction of yield, enabling farmers to take appropriate storage measures . Furthermore, agriculture technology is on its way to revolutionize  the farming industry, and farmers must prepare themselves to embrace the new future .According to Verspagen , technology is of no use to agriculture economic development if it is unknown to the people.Channels such as the extension officers , Community farm associations,Farmer-to-Farmer interactions , agriculture institutions in the country, etc.,must be operational in the dissemination of technical information.Conley et al.  stated new users might also learn the technological features from others while other factors such as education, ebb and flow tray farm size, etc. also play an essential role in technology enactment .

Also, the outline of agricultural policies and provisions made for a particular technology defines its acceptance .Moreover, many perceive technology usage as a decree to their freedom,while others refrain from it due to cultural or religious beliefs. Yet, the millennial farmers feel easy in this virtual agricultural environment , while long-standing farmers can accept technological innovations if productivity increases whereas labor reduce .Technology inclusion in the agriculture industry is a milestone in affirming food security, . In the research conducted by Kansanga et al.  on “Traditional agriculture in transition: examining the impacts of agricultural modernization on smallholder farming in Ghana under the new Green Revolution,” the study confirmed the significance of using technology to enhance modern-day agriculture productivities. The pre-data-preparation showed that the participants in this study were youth between age 17 and 35 years and are fairly educated, of which males are the majority.The adequacy of each variable to be included was assessed for its appropriateness in factor analysis using the Keiser-Meyer-Olkin test . The observed value was 0.768, statistically significant, ebb and flow trays considering a threshold of 0.60stated by . To successfully classify the variables into five constructs, the researchers used Cattel’s scree plot and the percentage of variation criterion described by . Figure 1 below shows the scree plot having eigenvalues on the vertical  and the number of constructs extracted on the horizontal .The number of components with eigenvalues greater than 1 is selected .

The 5 constructs extracted can explain 66.88% of the variance.The measure internal consistency of the items was assessed Cronbach’s alpha,CR, and AVE and the outcome displayed in Table 1 above. All values reported are above the threshold, which established that the content validity and reliability of the items are satisfactory.The factor loadings for the constructs give a statistically significant percentage of variation explained and describe that technology implementation has the greatest of variance explained, 18.37%, followed by the economic development with 16.85%; participants motivation accounted for 12.69% and government policy  having 10.56. Except for H2 and H3, all other hypotheses were significant at a 95% confidence level, as shown in Table 4. The inferential relationship between technology implementation and youth farming was positive, meaning that the ease of applying technology in agriculture tends to boost the youth to go into farming. Again, the positive relationships indicate that if appropriate governmental policies with incentives are laid down for farmers,young educated people will move into agricultural farming. Also, the negative the moderating effect of knowledge on technology implementation in farming implies that when the youth have enough knowledge on the application and performance of the technology in farming, their attitude of risk perception on farming decreases.In Figure 2, the latent variables are marked with oval shapes, whereas the rectangles are the measurement items, and the circles labeled e1 to e23 are the unobserved variations in the model.

This was a higher score than that of sensitivity but lower than that of adaptive capacity. This can be associated with results of the contributing sub-components of adaptive capacity status used to compute index of this component.Most of the households in the study area did not have access to relief food. Sources of income for most of the households were agricultural related activities which are affected by rainfall variability contributing to their low income.Although majority of the households accessed seasonal climate information prior planting seasons, this did not contributed significantly to adaptation to rainfall variability due to their low income which may have hindered acquisition of the required farming inputs. Majority (97.4%) of the households lied in the level of “vulnerable”. There were no households in the two categories of “not vulnerable” and “extremely vulnerable”. Lack of extremely vulnerable households to rainfall variability maybe due to the fact that all households reported to have been having some adaptive capacity despite the high rate of exposure. However,vertical grow table households found even in the same agro-ecological zone can have different vulnerability levels largely due to variations in socio-economic characteristics such as gender and income levels .

A cross-tabulation between categorized levels of vulnerability and major socio-economic characteristics of households was done (Table 5). Despite most of the households being in vulnerability category (Table 4), this varied among various contributing factors to LVI. Female headed households had higher percentage (98.15%) of households in vulnerability than the male headed households (97.04%). No female headed household was less vulnerable as it was with male headed households. This shows that female headed households are generally more vulnerable compared to their male counterpart. This may be attributed to factors such as low size of cultivated land, low access to three meals in a day, shortages of seed for planting and lack of stock of crop to last households up to the next harvest.All household headed by people with primary and secondary level of education were found to be vulnerable with those with primary level taking lead. Surprisingly,despite vulnerability generally reducing with education level of the household head, 1.49% of those with non-formal education were less vulnerable and 29.41% of those with tertiary education being highly vulnerable. The occurrence of less vulnerable households among household heads with non-formal education may be due to the fact that this is the category which was leading in having stock of planting seeds and stock of food to last up to the next harvest.A comparison of vulnerability levels among different age groups revealed that 96.06% of households headed by people aged between 36 and 50 years were vulnerable.

Although this formed the majority of households,mobile vertical grow tables this result can be attributed to fewer years of experience in farming under variable rainfall conditions.Households headed by the aged (over 65 years) spread across the three levels of vulnerability. In this category, households who were less vulnerable could be attributed to many years of experience while those who were highly vulnerable may be due the fact majority lacked stock of crop to last them up to the next harvesting season and therefore majority lacking three meals in a day for most part the year.The level of vulnerability increased with number of members in households.For instance all households with members exceeding 15 were found to be vulnerable to rainfall variability. This may be associated with difficulties that such households have in getting sufficient provision for these large household members.However, less vulnerable households were found among those with between 11 and 15 members. This could be associated with adequate labour provided by such members in farmland and income from off-farm sources.Vulnerability generally decreased with increase in level of income of the households as the highly vulnerable were those whose income level was below 50,000 Kenya shillings. This may be attributed to availability of income sufficient to cushion such households against effects of rainfall variability. Surprisingly some households (2.97%) with high farming experience (over 20 years) were highly vulnerable.

These methods are sustainable cropping technologies while weeding, crop replanting and suckling removal, manual irrigation system and replanting are not sustainable cropping technologies because they are adversely affecting the farmers due to higher labor cost demand.Farmers can evade the disastrous effect of climate change when they are aware of the impacts of extreme weather conditions. Farmers should have wide understanding of the nature of every climate variability particularly its impact, its nature and frequency of occurrence and how farmers should learn how to deal with them. Farmer’s education and training on climate change can be of great help to farmers vulnerable to all kinds of extreme weather. Many of the farmers’ adaptation strategies are technologically advanced but some are still traditional.Traditional methods may not be favorable among farmers but the lack of technological knowledge and financial support makes them vulnerable to climate variability. The need to train farmers to a more advanced farming technology is relevant to help farmers cope with the adverse effect of extreme weather conditions. The adaptation strategies of farmers during extreme heat to income includetaking loans and credits to compradors or the middle men who buy and sell agricultural products.

Usually, farmers go to comprador for credits in exchange for the crops they harvest. The crops that farmers grow served as the collateral of the loans they availed from the comprador . This practice is disadvantageous on the part of the farmers because during the harvest time, grow lights the farmer would bring their products to the comprador, keep value of cost of the product and deduct from the cost the amount of the loans accorded to them with interest and at lower cost. Farmers are not protected in this case and they are helpless when they are affected by the extreme weather conditions. Abaca farmers wait for the replaced crops to grow and the waiting would last for 6months to one year depending on the crops grown. During the waiting time,farmers engage in buy and sell and others migrate to other places in search for alternative jobs. Some farmers would send their children in the cities to work as household helpers and the salary is the one that sustains their daily needs.Schooling children are made to quit affecting the children’s education.The experience of farmers during extreme rainfall is far better than during extreme heat because the presence of more rain in the field means good or better growth for all kinds of crops. Thus, the production of their crops is better and their income is better. Although, in some cases, some farmers still experience losses but they manage to engage in buy and sell as alternative source of income.The income of coconut farmers are not much affected by the extreme rainfall because these crops can grow robustly.

During typhoon, farmers can still find some ways to recover their income by converting damaged crops to cash such as the fallen coconuts into copra and the fallen abaca to fibers. The root crops are not affected so the root crop farmers can still find a steady income after the typhoon but the rice and vegetables when totally damaged by the typhoon means a total loss of income and need for new capital or investments. Farmers in this case go again to compradors, led grow lights loan sharks or lease up their property.The early onset of the rainfall is promising to the income of farmers. According to the farmers, the harvest of all crops in this climatic condition is good and this means a good income to all farmers. Farmers do take the opportunity of farming early as soon as the rain started pouring so they can harvest early and the return of the investment is also earlier. But what they plant are alternative or seasonal crops that are resilient to this kind of weather. It means that the farmers were not affected by the delay onset of rainfall particularly the root crops, abaca, and the coconut farmers. Vegetable farmers resort to finding other means of livelihood while they waited for the advent of the rain. LaNina also have no significant impact on the income of the farmers in all sectors so they have no adaptation strategies During la Nina, crops grow favorably and has also no adaptation strategy. Likewise, El Nino does not affect the income of farmers so they also have no adaptation strategy to augment their income.

Recently, the fallow periods have been decreasing,which indicates higher pressure on the soil as long as no fertilizers are applied to compensate for the loss of soil fertility in this region. This has generated two serious problems. First it is reduced the quality and quantity of crop output. Second it is produced fragmented and poor soil as a result of the misuse of land. Moreover,the soil in western Sudan had deteriorated and lost most of its potential with almost no recovery .The reduction in food and cash crop productivity has perceptibly emerged from a general comparison of the average weighted yields for the major field crops over five ten-years periods as shown in Table 1. It appears from the table that the yield of sorghum was higher in compared to the yield of millet from period (1970/71-1979/80) to (2010/11-2012/13). Additionally, the yield of groundnut was higher from period (1970/71-1979/80)up to (2010/11-2012/13) in compared to the yield of sesame. The table shows the higher fluctuation of all crops productivity over the five ten year’s periods. Therefore, moving from high yield to low yield would reflect the low crop production in the traditional farming of western Sudan as a consequence of poor farm management and inappropriate policy strategies.

The low productivity of crops is caused by a number of factors, among them low soil fertility, low and erratic rainfall, eruption of pests and diseases, and poor adoption of improved seed varieties.Millet and sorghum (as subsistence food crops) are produced extensively by the farm households in the study area to cover their food subsistence needs. On the other hand, groundnut crop is grown in the western part of North Kordofan State, while sesame crop is cultivated in the Northern part. However,hydroponic gutter both crops are cultivated to provide cash income in order to satisfy other food and basic needs for the farmers. The analysis of the cultivated areas and production of both food and cash crops was revealed the vital role for these crops in food security.The time series data exposed the current trends of the average cultivated area by sorghum and millet crops in North Kordofan State from period 1970/71 to 2012/13 as illustrated in Figure 3.The fluctuation in the cultivated area of sorghum and millet crops is explained by inadequate management of field crop practices and lack of technology adoption. The serious impact of environmental conditions such as desertification and drought contribute negatively to the cultivated area. In view of the fact that millet is a stable food for consumption, its production is characterized by large cultivated areas during the last 43 years relative to sorghum crops. Nevertheless, an analysis of the cultivated area would not reveal the complete picture on the performance of crops unless the production of these crops can be analyzed.

The analysis of production for both food crops (sorghum and millet) in North Kordofan State from season1970/71 to 2012/13 as shown in Figure 4. The production of millet and sorghum crops recorded continuous declining and fluctuating during the period 1970/71-2012/13. Despite of an increase in the cultivated area of millet crops its production exhibited an acute decline. Millet is very sensitive to the instability of rainfall and drought.Thus, the fluctuation in the total production of both millet and sorghum often result in food insecurity, hydroponic nft channel most of the time manifested in the form of localized or pockets of food in security.An analysis of the cultivated areas by groundnut and sesame crops is exposed in Figure 5. This outcome coincides with the objectives of the government policies that seek to expand the cultivated area under cash crop production for the purpose of market orientation and export. Thus, the trends of the cultivated area by cash crops increased from 1970/71 to2012/13. This is described by upward trends in the cultivated areas for both groundnut and sesame. Furthermore, the time series data for analyzing the output of cash crops during the period 1970/71-2012/13 is clearly demonstrated in Figure 6. The figure shows the forward trend of groundnut production in compared to sesame production. Consequently, the output trends for both food and cash crops reflect the inadequate situation of food security in North Kordofan State, since cash crops are the most important farm income sources.

In recent years, Buea has experienced an increase in population resulting in an increased demand for tomatoes. This has caused a tomato shortage and led many small-scale farmers to change to tomato cultivation, even though they had limited knowledge on tomato farming techniques. Buea is an ideal environment to grow tomatoes,because the land has streams and springs which facilitate irrigation by running down the mountain slope of the municipality. In Buea, tomato cultivation has benefited the economy by increasing both community employment and the income of small- and medium-scale farmers. The tomatoes grown are used for household and domestic consumption, and are in demand in neighboring areas of Cameroon and other nations. Yet, in Cameroon,the production of tomatoes has been shown to be greatly impacted by different types of pests . Farmers often regard pesticides to be the primary solution to boost their crop productivity, but the farmers’ increasing dependence on pesticides has attracted little attention in Cameroon. The increased crop productivity is especially appreciated by the small-scale farmers, but there is also increasing concern expressing about the health effects of pesticide use within the communities.

This study was performed to determine the degree and types of pesticide use, the Buea farmer’s reliability on chemicals to control pests and to assess the knowledge,and perception of farmers on pesticide effectiveness and potential health risks. Criteria for participation included the farmer must have lived upon and practiced pesticide use on their farm for a minimum of 3 years, own/rent a tomato farm with a size between ≤200 m2 to 900 m2 within the Buea municipality,and able to communicate in either English, French, “pidgin English” or the local language (Bakweri).Participants were recruited with the assistance of community leaders, churches, and local groups in the study area. Letters were sent to each of these entities which contained a clear explanation of reasons for the study,study objectives, inclusion criteria, consent to participate, and voluntary participation. Those farmers who expressed interest in participation were invited to meet at the community leaders’ residence, group meeting locations, or church premises. At these meetings, the principal investigator reviewed the study and explained the content. If the farmer wished to participate,ebb and flow trays the consent form was signed, and the questionnaire was given to complete. All participants spoke “pidgin English” which is the commonly used language in the South West region. Those participants who could not read came with a family member or friend to assist in understanding each question and how to complete the questionnaire. The principal investigator also followed up with those farmers who could not read English, and translated the questionnaire into their preferred language to make sure the questions were fully understood.Of the 98 farmers who volunteered to participate in the survey, 3 dropped out of the study due to travel difficulties.This left a total of 95 participating farmers.

As a quality control measure, all questionnaires were checked and double-keyed to ensure the questions were answered. Two questionnaires had missing values and were excluded from the study. This left a final total of 93 farmers who successfully completed all aspects of the study. Africa, farmers have been shown to apply pesticides more frequently with the hope of acquiring better results. African farmers have also been shown to lack knowledge on the appropriate techniques and management of pesticides or alternative ways to control pests which could be addressed by instituting agricultural extension service programs . In many African countries, governmental programs have encouraged the use of pesticides with a focus on crop and production yield, but without giving serious consideration of the environmental and health risks consequences .

In Koraput, 61 percent of protein was obtained from cereals and millets in2014, which decreased to 51 percent in 2017; other major contributors of protein are vegetables, pulses and legumes and animal foods . In Wardha, 52percent of protein was obtained from cereals and millets followed by vegetables and pulses and legumes in 2014. Following FSN interventions, in 2017, 41 percent of protein was obtained from cereals and millets and remaining share from vegetables, pulses and legumes increased. Overall, protein obtained from animal foods increased by 2 percent after intervention in both locations.In Koraput, protein obtained from fishes and sea foods increased from 3percent to 7 percent due after intervention. The average calcium intake per CU per day in 2014 was more than the RDA in Koraput and increased significantly after intervention by 333g. This increase may have been due to increase in consumption of finger millet and green leafy vegetables sourced from home production and fish from market. Major share of calcium was obtained from cereals and millets ,vegetables  and animal foods  in 2014 which changed to 35 percent,32 percent and 26 percent respectively in 2017.

About 93 percent of the households in 2014 consumed calcium more than 70 percent of RDA which further increased to 97 percent in 2017. Puranik et al.  reported that for low-income households which mostly depend on starchy and bulky foods like rice for their calorie requirements, finger millet ensures a pragmatic solution. Bioavailability of calcium  in finger millet is high when compared with other cereals like rice , maize  and sorghumIn Wardha the average intake of calcium was less than RDA in 2014 and increased significantly by 421 g and met the RDA as most of the households consuming less than 70 percent of recommended allowance of calcium in 2014 were consuming more than 70 percent of RDA, in 2017 after FSN intervention. There was a notable increase in consumption of millets,mobile vertical grow tables leafy vegetables, animal foods,all of which are primary source of calcium. In 2014, calcium was obtained majorly from cereals and millets followed by vegetables and animal foods and after intervention in 2017, animal foods, mainly fishes and sea foods from market followed by vegetables mainly green leafy vegetables contributed major share of calcium to the diet . Similar results, calcium intake more than recommended level was reported by Adhiguru and Ramasamy after vegetable production system intervention. Increased intake of calcium was reported due to consumption of vegetables and fruits from home garden by Alemu, et al. and Kim and Park .

The average per CU per day intake of iron in Koraput in 2014 was less than the RDA  which significantly increased by 6 mg in 2017 after FSN intervention.About 71 percent of the households were consuming iron more than 70 percent of RDA in 2014 and in 2017, 92 percent of the households consume diron more than 70 percent of RDA. In Wardha, in 2014 the intake was more than RDA, however it further significantly increased by 10 mg in 2017. The quantity of iron from home garden promoted as FSN activity increased in both the locations. Cereals and millets was the main source of iron in both the locations in 2014 and remained to be the higher source in 2017. Coarse cereals likesorghum, pearl millet and finger millet and whole wheat have relatively high iron and folate content . Pulses and legumes was the second source of iron in2014 which changed to vegetables in 2017 in Koraput and vegetables and pulses and legumes in Wardha. Adhiguru and Ramasamy  reported that the vegetable production system highly favoured the increased intake of iron, vitamin A and vitamin C. In this study, two sectors adjacent to Gishwati Forest national park were identified based on the location of the cooperatives which deal with agriculture and beekeeping. During the data collection, two cooperative working in sectors adjacent to Gishwati Forest national park were selected and provided accurate information.In Ruhango sector, Kavumu Cell, Gakeli Village, all 51 beekeepers grouped in UNICOAPIGI cooperative were identified and Kigeyo Sector, RukaragataCell, Kagondero Village, all 73 house hold farmers grouped in JYAMBERE cooperative were selected and involved in data collection. Before conducting the survey, field visit and observations was conducted to better design the questionnaire and identify the main elements of the study including agricultural and beekeeping activities in adjacent to Gishwati Forest Nationalpark and in surrounding of the park.

These products should be handled with care since fish may be infected by A. hydrophila strains that cause skin infections .Studies on frozen and fresh fish on Aeromonas strains related to the deterioration process of fresh and frozen fish, in frozen foods could be recovered .A survey conducted in the state of Sao Paulo evaluated salmon microbiology by quantifying microorganisms in the flesh of 31 salmon samples  and detected Aeromonas ssp. and other microorganisms in the retail network of several cities in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Aeromonas ssp. Have been detected in 41.95% of the samples, with population variation from 2.0 × 102to 8.0 × 103 CFU/G . Another study in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,investigated the occurrence of Aeromonas hydrophila and Campylobacter jejuniin the samples of fresh tuna  captured on the coast of Santa Catarina and evaluated 85 samples of tuna fillets by using bacteriological analysis andPCR. Eleven  samples were positive for Aeromonas spp., with 10/11 proved to be Aeromonas hydrophila by PCR The sawfish was contaminated by A. hydrophila , vectoring the pathogenic agent when the fish was consumed .

The above-mentioned study collected 60 samples of live  and frozen fish from 15 local markets in Baghdad, Iraq, to isolate Aeromonas hydrophila and determine hemolytic activity, isolates’ cytotoxicity, and their susceptibility to antibiotics. Furthermore, 65% of the samples had Aeromonas hydrophila, 76.6% were found in samples of live fish and 53.3% in frozen fish; hemolysisα e β was detected in 94.87% of the samples; 100% of the isolates from live fish had β hemolysis, whereas 85.7% showed β hemolysis, and 14.3% showedα hemolysis; 97.43% of the isolates had cytotoxic effect on Vero cells. All isolates were 100% resistant to penicillin, ampicillin, cloxacillin, and bacitracin, according to the sensitivity test, whereas resistance to other antibiotics was 56.5% to oxitetraciclina; 33.4% to tetracycline, 30.8% to cefoxetin, hydroponic bucket and 28.2% to chloramphenicol and kanamycin. Isolates were resistant to streptomycin and rifampicin,respectively, at 23.1% and 15.4%. Four species of Aeromonas spp.  were identified in all samples analyzed in sports fish farms in the state of Maranhao, Brazil. These fish farms were a possible risk in the transmission of pathogenic Aeromonas and a risk factor for consumers offish bred on these farms .

Aeromonas are gastroenteritis-causing bacteria that are transmitted to humans by contact with the etiological agent and the intake of contaminated meat, vegetables, and water. Several studies suggested that infection by Aeromonas was one of the causes of traveler’s diarrhea .A. hydrophila , free-living bacteria, were found to cause diseases in fish; they are an opportunistic pathogen in humans. A. hydrophila infections in animals and humans in Thailand first occurred in 1976 and 1979, respectively, with fish mortality between 0% and 20%. Diarrhea is prevalent in the cases of human infection. Vila et al.  showed that A. veronii biovar sobria and A. caviae are mostly associated with traveler’s diarrhea. Pereira et al.  investigated the presence of Aeromonas in neonates hospitalized in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and obtained 94.6% prevalence rate for Aeromonas . A. caviae was the most prevalent in the samples. They may also cause skin damage to infected individuals. Bacteria cause intestinal infections associated with severe diarrhea and may be lethal if it infects other regions of the body, such as an open wound. The presence of Aeromonas spp. in foods of animal origin suggests that these species persists even when hygiene and sanitary control is employed, leading to a risk to consumers’ health Aeromonas spp. are important pathogenic microorganisms.

Since they originate from water and other environments, they can adapt themselves to a wide variety of environments owing to several virulence factors. The above is directly linked to the microorganism’s pathogenicity for human beings In fact,water and food play an important role in the transmission of the pathogen .Because of the remarkable diversity of ecosystems in which Aeromonas inhabit,they have become resistant to antimicrobial agents and become highly virulent.In fact, several Aeromonas species secrete extracellular proteins such as amylase, chitinase, elastase, aerolysine, nuclease, gelatinase, lecitinase, lipase, and protease, which, according to the literature, are known to be virulent factors that cause disease in fish and human beings  A. hydrophila is a gram-negative bacterium with virulence factors such as hemolysins,aerolysins, adesins, and enterotoxins.

The same applies to the disposal in the open air and in the water, which reduced 47% and 62%, respectively, from the complete illiterate to the high school.The decrease in the burning process occurred from raising the education level causing a significant increase in the waste packaging process in closed locations, collection  and recycling  that began to be a behavior of some family members within the production units which have studied Incomplete Elementary School, rising greatly to the ones which attended High School.There was also a 34% increase in the burying process of waste generated based on the high level of education. This indicates that producers believe by burying the waste they are giving a correct destination, however, without knowing the consequences to the families.Nevertheless, even rising the garbage produced amount by family units in Acre as there has been increased in income; it’s possible to note that the educational level plays a key role in the environmental awareness formation.

Through research, it was found that from incomplete Elementary School occurred behavioral changes regarding the destination of the waste. There was, for example,increased process of selective collection, recycling, burial, and waste packaging indoors. Also, a decrease in the open air and in water bodies dump as well as in the waste burning. Rice is not a semiarid region crop because of its high water requirements. However, in Eritrea significant runoff produced from nonagricultural lands, which occupy >50% – 80% area of all agricultural watersheds,nft growing system can be harvested and used as additional rainwater to facilitate rice farming. Farmers cultivate crops on un-terraced sloppy lands that also contribute 60% – 70% of rainfall as runoff, which flows forming numerous channels and gullies damaging downstream field crops. In watersheds of size more than 5 ha, runoff frequently floods the downstream fields at the outlet rendering them unfit for raising a good crop during rainy season .The same runoff could be boon to rice production if diverted through designed waterways into small ponds constructed on upstream side of such fields . Crop yields in Eritrea are low  because >70% ofthe total rainfall is lost as runoff from traditional sloppy fields Storage of even part of the runoff in watersheds, which is also rich in nutrients and soil colloidal fractions, can serve as not only extra rainwater but also nutrients for crops.Rice cultivation through water harvesting in terraced fields was successfully demonstrated in Uganda . Although rice likes wetter regime in the root zone, irrigations applied at 8 days interval were also optimum for rice growth in Sudan .

Rice needs water to meet its evapotranspiration  requirements and to satisfy percolation from the soil moisture regime of field capacity to submergence necessary for optimum yields High percolation from rice fields and ponds made for harvesting runoff to meet water requirements of rice will also recharge groundwater table that may serve as source of sub-irrigation directly into the crop root zone Tesfamichael observed development of water table that fluctuated from 0.4 – 1.2 m depth from surface during October 2006 to March 2007 in about 6 ha valley farmland in Akriya, Asmara region of Eritrea, surrounded by 36.5 ha hilly terrain.Contribution of groundwater table to ET requirements of wheat was 90% from the water table fluctuating from 0.4 – 0.55 m depth from surface, which declined to 38% as water table dropped to 1.2 m depth by milk stage .Runoff farming has been traditionally practiced as spate irrigation in Eritrea since more than 100 years ago .Spate irrigation is a pre-planting system of irrigation by diverting seasonal rivers producing flash floods from highlands and mountainous areas to recharge soil profile in the lowlands. More than 50% of total irrigation in Eritrea is through spate irrigation practiced from eastern to western lowlands along the Red sea coast Depending upon rainfall, catchment size and runoff from highlands, diversion dams are constructed in the rivers to channelize runoff into cultivated fields to recharge soil profile in several flash floods before planting a crop.Water use efficiency of spate irrigation systems in Eritrea has been low due to wild flooding of uncropped fields leading to over or inadequate watering All spate irrigated fields in Eritrea could prove boon to rice production with high water use efficiency through improvements in existing diversion structures to regulate flood water supply and field level management. Rice could be grown during preplanting irrigation period from the third week of June to October with little intervention in the existing cropping system and flood water management.Objective of this study was to design and develop runoff harvesting system in agricultural watersheds associated with nonagricultural lands to facilitate runoff farming of rice in semiarid environments of Hamelmalo,Anseba region of Eritrea.