Category: hydroponic agriculture

Agricultural development has been affected by natural climate variability and extreme climate events which have caused significant decline in productivity resulting in food insecurity and poverty among rural communities. Precipitation changes are currently insufficient for many crops that water scarcity increasingly con- strains production . Analyses conducted by the Nigerian Meteorological Agency , have found that drought disasters are significantly more probable in re- cent times . While droughts are frequent, the rate of growth in agriculture has been one of the slowest in terms of production and productivity . The pressure also includes the intensified use of more fragile land re- sources, leading to accelerated degradation of the soil to desert-like conditions, thereby reducing sustainable agricultural production . Today, Nigeria has less than 9% of the total cropped area under irrigation. Hence, the rural population is very vulnerable to rainfall fluctuations. Despite the economic hardship and the prolonged effects of drought and desertification, the people in the drought prone areas of northern Nigeria possess great reliance, patience, and adaptive capacity . Environmental de- gradation caused by successive years of poor rainfall amount/distribution and recurrent droughts is exacerbated by combined effects of natural population growth and immigration from neighboring resource-poorer countries. In this study we focused on the vast traditional knowledge of the farmers on rainfall prediction and their understanding of its reliability through their observation, experience and practice in the field. Understanding them is not only necessary to communicate the scientific fore- cast, since it is learnt and identified by farmers within a cultural context and the knowledge base which follows specific language, belief and process. By perceiving such a knowledge base, it may facilitates social interaction and promote acceptance of scientific forecast among the farmers.  

The South American Andes are rife with environmental problems related to human activities in fragile eco-systems. Andean populations are among the poorest in South America and often depend on rain-fed agriculture. The Andes form the headwaters of many of the great river systems of South America, and runoff and agriculture-related pollution can have negative consequences far from their sources. Humans are encroaching into fragile high plains as population pressures at lower elevations extend the agricultural frontier. Strategies to address these problems include more environmentally benign agricultural technologies in fragile areas,hydroponic bucket intensified production in less-fragile areas to reduce pressure on more fragile areas, and raising income-earning potential through less land-intensive activities. A key is to alter human behavior. Adaptive management processes show promise as means of altering behavior to attain agreed- upon goals. A watershed approach to natural resource management has been tried in different settings with varying degrees of success. Watersheds define natural linkages between human populations and their environments . Watershed management is consistent with decentralized governance, which is gaining favor in Andean countries . However, modern watershed management techniques require digitized data that are of limited availability in high mountain areas, and watershed management often requires the cooperation of competing and overlapping levels of local and regional government. A watershed management approach faces many challenges. Any watershed approach must begin with the notion that watershed-level outcomes are products of individual decisions on fields spread across the catchment’s area. These decisions reflect household livelihood strategies of allocating their physical, human, natural, and other assets to earn livings, increase well-being, and manage multiple risks . Individual decisions have compound effects and impacts on aggregate economic and environmental outcomes result from a complex mosaic of economic, social, and physical networks that characterize all water-sheds. The driving factor is human decision making. Effective management must identify mechanisms for changing human activities and introduce options to raise incomes while mitigating negative environmental consequences. Integrated adaptive watershed management is a relatively new concept in Ecuador, but it provides hope that some environmental problems can be addressed through consensus building.

The 1970s-era focus of tops-down watershed management has evolved over time and newer concepts recognize the holistic nature of the relationship between land use, agricultural production, natural re- source conservation, and reduction of contaminants. It also recognizes that watershed outcomes result from human decisions . Our integrated watershed management program in the Chimbo sub-watershed in Bolivar Province is guided by four concepts: 1) Agricultural intensification can be consistent with sustainable natural resource management ; 2) Sustainable agricultural practices can contribute to preservation of bio-diversity ; 3) Increased bio-diversity can contribute to household food security by diversifying diets and reducing risks of crop failure ; and 4) Even the poorest of the poor are interested in and capable of adopting environmentally friendly technologies . Evidence shows that these arguments are valid in the Ecuadorean highlands . Ecuador’s National Autonomous Agricultural Research Institute  has engaged farmers in the Chimbo for many years and has found farmers to be receptive to solutions to natural re- source problems . Over time, INIAP has created important strategic alliances and generated broad support for integrated adaptive watershed management. INIAP now combines an integrated adaptive management approach with a livelihoods focus, recognizing that any effort to improve environmental conditions must also create economic space for conservation actions. The objectives of this paper are to describe the adaptive watershed management process, obstacles overcome during its implementation, and provide a preliminary assessment of program impacts. We describe the site, present our research methods, and identify specific innovations attributable to the research. We then discuss research findings with respect to returns to management practices and describe how the recommended practices have spread over time. The paper concludes by discussing lessons learned and how the adaptive management process can be applied to other areas. The program was structured around an adaptive water- shed management conceptual framework. This frame- work begins with the watershed as a geographic entity and recognizes that actors within the watershed make decisions that affect the entire watershed. The adaptive management framework is well-known  but has rarely been applied in a developing country context. It begins with an assessment of conditions and identification of problems faced by actors in the watershed. Stakeholders are engaged in goal-setting, and research is designed to address obstacles to achieving goals. Re- search findings are then used in a participatory process with stakeholders to produce watershed plans. These plans are implemented and outcomes are monitored. Monitoring could lead to changes in plans over time, and the adaptive cycle begins again.

We introduce two innovations to this framework: Plans are adapted on a regular basis as the research base and acceptance of it grows, and the land-use plans include consideration of household decision making and how decisions create impact across multiple systems within the watershed. The household decision process reflects livelihood choices. A livelihood refers to the capabilities, assets , stackable planters and activities required for a means of living , or how labor, land, and other assets are distributed among productive and reproductive activities. The decision to adopt a livelihood is based on the household asset base; available alternatives; institutional, policy, and social environments; access to information; and the natural environment. Asset allocation decisions have effects on household wellbeing, the ability to save and invest, and the natural environment. For example, adoption of a maize technology affects labor and land allocations, income, risk exposure, and may affect erosion, runoff, and future soil quality. All these outcomes were identified as important during implementation of the adaptive management process. The management program was built on four dimensions: communication, coordination, compromise and co- operation. The project facilitated movement along these dimensions through regular community meetings and a process of participatory research. Interactions helped generate consensus about key problems and solutions most likely to be successful. Our assessment began with a participatory rural appraisal  to identify productive activities, assets, and perceptions about environmental conditions. The PRA was followed by a statistically representative house- hold survey that collected information from 286 families. The survey covered household demographics, assets, sources of income, agricultural practices and others. These data were used to categorize households into livelihood typologies and conduct analysis of household decision making processes. Survey observations were georeferenced, which allowed us to overlay survey information with agroecological, soils, infrastructure and other information in a GIS. The GIS was used to create thematic maps for the community engagement process, and to inform and structure research. Emphasis was placed on identifying alternatives and evaluating them through hands-on research. For example, conversion of lands to permanent pasture or reversion to woodlands was not initially viewed as desirable. An assessment of biodiversity, together with research on alter- natives to reduce erosion on productive lands, helped convince stakeholders that a combination of reversion together with adoption of erosion control practices in the most erosion-sensitive areas would help meet objectives about which consensus had been reached. Similar re- search efforts were undertaken to help find more effective soil fertility management regimes, more environmentally benign pest control methods, etc. Livelihoods and their diversity: The baseline survey and information from the PRA were used to identify livelihood clusters. A quantitative hierarchical  clustering method  was combined with expert opinion to create these clusters. The livelihood clusters can be thought of as groupings of households with similar asset bases and different means of combining them to earn incomes. Some clusters were exclusively agriculture, others rely on off-farm incomes, and others on remittances from outside the area . Water quality analysis: Early in the process, stake- holders decided that water quality should be monitored. Monitoring results were used to evaluate impacts of land-use changes on water quality. We measured bio- indicators , physical-chemical com- positions, and micro-biological parameters . This monitoring helped engage community members and built ownership of the research. Key macro-invertebrates were identified in exercises with local school children during 2006 and 2007; subsequent monitoring was incorporated into the local curriculum .

Monthly chemical analysis begins with samples being extracted by community members and sent to Quito for detailed analysis. Nitrate, phosphorus, total solids, temperature, pH, conductivity, fecal coliform, and total coliform are all measured. Data on rainfall and stream flows are being collected and used to calibrate our watershed models . Biodiversity assessment: The PRA indicated that stake- holders were not aware of biodiversity or its importance. Early on, an assessment activity evaluated the richness and diversity of plant and animal species. The focus was on remaining natural woodlands and areas where water recharge occurs . The assessment incorporated local knowledge about the value, uses and abundance of native plant and animal species. Stakeholders helped transect the study area, and collect photographic and physical evidence. Evidence was classified and categorized at the National Herbarium in Quito. Strategic transects were also undertaken in remnant woodlands and areas of high vulnerability . Physical and environmental vulnerability: We stratified our on-farm agronomic research  according to an index of physical vulnerability which included six parameters: slope, vegetative coverage, rain- fall frequency and intensity, wind intensity, seasonal variability and soil texture. These indicators were selected following focus group discussions with technicians and local farmers. The index takes a value between 0 and 1, with 0 signifying no vulnerability and 1 representing areas of extreme vulnerability. The index was especially useful in helping producers understand linkages between farming practices, soil loss, and subsequent off-farm damages. Farmers had their parcels classified and the index values and information on actual land use were incorporated into the GIS. This information was used to identify environmental hot-spots and to inform subsequent land use plans. Design of environmentally friendly alternatives: The program selected 13 production systems for research on more sustainable practices. All the practices were consistent with livelihood clusters. Illangama systems revolved around a well-established potato-dairy rotation, while in Alumbre maize-beans predominate . Trials were established on pilot farms to evaluate impacts on income, labor use, environmental degradation, etc. of these practices. Best Management Practices  were targeted for implementation in high-vulnerability areas .The micro-watersheds are distinguished by major differences in flora biodiversity. We identified around 162 tree and bush species in the area. In Illangama and Alumbre we identified 13 and 32 species, respectively, unique to that micro-watershed. Only 17 families of species were common to both micro-watersheds. Biodiversity is far richer in Alumbre, where the warmer climate is more conducive to species diversification.

Thirty years ago there were thousands of seed companies in the world, most of which were small and family owned. To-day, the top six global seed companies control almost 50% of the commercial seed trade . Some of these companies belong to worldwide corporations that are also involved with pesticides and biotechnology. The vegetables attracting the most breeding attention vary considerably between small and huge seed companies/ corporations. In large international companies the breeding activity is more diverse, but is concentrated on the more economically important crops. In these companies, marker assisted selection  has become an integral component of many commercial vegetable breeding programs . The initial aim of molecular breeding has been to supplement conventional methods with faster and more efficient breeding through MAS or marker-assisted back crossing . Molecular markers that are closely linked to the trait of inter-est may be identified and applied in gene pyramiding, facilitating introgression of desirable traits into cultivars, early selection, etc. For more complex traits conferred by multigenic traits, QTL analysis has been carried out. Markers bring additional value when they can be used to accelerate the development of new improved vegetable cultivars.

Developmental cycles of commercial hybrid cultivars range between 5 and 12 years. Besides breeding lines necessary for creating hybrid seed need to be re-fined for specific markets. All these high significant R&D investments make commercial vegetable breeding expensive. A greater desire for year-round availability of vegetables has had a significant impact on seed companies, blueberry grow pot requiring full year-round production and consequently a global presence. Unlike for instance agrochemicals ‘‘where one size fits all’’, seed cultivars need to be adapted and differentiated to suit the agronomic needs of the respective region where the vegetable is grown. Active international trade and overseas vegetable seed production by contract is common in many countries. Each multinational company vies to provide better vegetable seeds to compete with domestic seed producers. In China, whose seed market is estimated to be valued at more than US$1.4 billion, the increased recognition of new and high-yielding hybrid cultivars has encouraged the local development of a large number of vegetable seed producers and distributors. Four types of vegetable seed producers were established: public seed companies, re-search institutes, foreign seed companies, and local seed companies. Private seed companies have been expanding rapidly in recent years and there are now thousands of small firms. Some companies have started to breed their own cultivars and establish marketing networks. They play a strong role in the Chinese vegetable seed industry. About 60 foreign seed companies have opened branch companies or stations in China. Most of them not only sell their vegetable seeds but also have established breeding stations. In other southeastern Asian countries such as India, Indonesia, Vietnam and Malaysia, the percentage of hybrid vegetable cultivars is lower than in China, and so a large expansion of seed companies has not yet occurred. While there has been rapid growth in the seed markets of developing countries due to a shift away from farm saved seed, the seed markets in developed countries, particularly those of Europe and Japan are stagnant.

In Europe and the United States, the seed industry has been concentrated and is largely in the hands of large corporations and many small firms are closing . Vegetable breeding strategy and targets are dependent on market trends. Successful breeders anticipate changes in the market by developing new cultivars that are ready to be released to the growers when their demand in-creases. Therefore, it will be interesting to see how breeding companies react to changes in vegetable consumption and to evaluate the potential influence that the vegetable market and growing systems may have on breeding targets and priorities. As stated biodiversity is the basis for plant breeding. Selection is impossible without diversity and new cultivars for farmers and growers cannot be developed with-out it. This makes access to this variation essential for breeders. As referred above, about one half  of the total number of vegetables cultivated in the world get commercial breeding attention by seed companies and, of those, only 17% are in large scale breeding programs, fostering a need for serious attention to maintenance of vegetable crop biodiversity. There has been a severe decline in the vegetable cultivar genetic base, as evidenced by the significant reduction, especially within the last 50 years, in the number and range of vegetable cultivars grown. During this period vegetable genetic diversity has been eroding all over the world and vegetable genetic resources are disappearing, on a global scale, at an un-precedented rate of 1.5% 2% perannum.Widespread adoption of simplified vegetable systems with low genetic diversity carries a variety of risks including food insecurity. In the short term, such systems risk potential crop failure. In the longer term, they en-courage the reduction of the broad genetic base that con-tributes to high yields, quality traits, disease and pest resistance, etc. and thus compromise the future genetic health of vegetables.

Especially prominent among the ‘‘enemies’’ of genetic diversity are the commercial markets and economic social pressures that have influenced breeding practices that promote uniformity, encouraging extensive cultiva-tion of preferred improved and hybrid vegetable cultivars with insufficient diversity. In addition, globalization has stimulated the consolidation of vegetable seed companies into huge corporations and the decline of small seed companies that serve local and regional markets. In con-sequence some vegetable breeding programs have been merged or eliminated to reduce costs. Thus, fewer and fewer companies/corporations are making critical decisions about the vegetable research agenda, and the future of vegetables worldwide. Inevitably, two things will happen. There will be fewer vegetable breeders in the future and growers will be dependent on a narrower genetic background that could contribute in the near future to food insecurity for poor growers and consumers. Also, with the advent of genetic engineering, these huge seed corporations are also assuming ownership of a vast array of living organisms and biological processes. Of equal concern are expanded uses of legal mechanisms, such as patents and plant breeder’s rights that are removing vegetable plant germplasm from general public use . Intellectual property rights for plants was in-tended as a defensive mechanism to prevent the loss of invented cultivars to competitors. However, with the more stringent enforcement of plant breeding rights, hydroponic bucket and particularly with the application of the utility patent law in the United States to protect all forms of an innovation, this has become an offensive weapon to stifle competition and inhibit the flow of germplasm and information. This can have serious implications for the future conservation of vegetable genetic resources and for world food security . Some land races and old open-pollinated cultivars of vegetables have existed for long periods outside the commercial and professional plant breeding circles be-cause they have been kept alive within communities by succeeding generations of seed savers. Unfortunately, active seed savers tend to be more and more a minority among the millions of vegetable growers. Due to the demand of commercial markets and the professionalization of the sector, many growers are no longer saving seeds. This is an additional threat to genetic diversity. So continued survival of landraces and open-pollinated cultivars of vegetables depends largely on popular interest and initiative as well as preservation in gene banks. We should be alerted and concerned about the loss of biodiversity in vegetables and about this impact on food security. Vegetable growers have an important role in conserving and using vegetable biodiversity.

The future of world food security depends not just on stored vegetable genes, but also on the people who use and maintain crop genetic diversity on a daily basis. In the long run, the conservation of plant genetic diversity depends not only on a small number of institutional plant breeders and seed banks, but also on the vast number of growers who select, improve, and use vegetable diversity, especially in marginal farming environments. That is why we should be also alerted and particularly alarmed by the current trend to use improved and hybrid vegetable cultivars exclusively. Growers do not just save seeds, they are plant breeders who are constantly adapting their vegetable crops to specific farming conditions and needs. For over 300 vegetable generations, vegetable growers have been selecting seeds and adapting their plants for local use. This genetic biodiversity is the key to maintaining and improving the world’s food security and nutrition. No plant breeder or genetic engineer starts from scratch when developing a new cultivar of tomato, pepper, cabbage or lettuce. They are building on the accumulated success of generations of growers, who have selected and improved vegetable seeds for thousands of years. If poor small-scale growers in marginal areas stop saving seeds, we will lose genetic diversity. Growers will lose the means to select and adapt vegetable crops to their unique farming conditions, which are characterized by low external inputs. Hybrid seed technology is designed to prevent growers from saving seed from their harvest, thus forcing them to return to the commercial seed market every year. Hybrid vegetable seeds alone, and used globally, can be a dead-end to biodiversity. If growers abandon completely their traditional vegetable landraces in the process of adopting only hybrids, crop genetic diversity achieved over centuries will be lost forever. Many agronomic benefits will be lost to worldwide vegetable growers and thus to consumers. The exclusive adoption of hybrid cultivars in marginal areas may restrict the vegetable producing capacity of farmers, it will destroy biodiversity, and it may contribute in the long-term to food insecurity. There is a growing awareness world-wide about the need to conserve plant germplasm for the use of future generations. Consequently, considerable media attention has been given to the creation of the Svalbard global seed vault and the related storage of seeds of many economically-important crops . However, the lower “status” of most of vegetable crops means that they are not treated with the same degree of priority and concern. Furthermore, the fact that many vegetable crops of comercial and horticultural significance are vegetatively propagated and not seed propagated restricts the options for their conservation other than through relatively ex-pensive live plant collections. There are also considerable ongoing efforts by national governments and international organizations to preserve plant vegetable germplasm in gene banks. This is a valuable but static approach, as further evolutionary changes and improvements will not occur until the seeds are planted. It is also an activity that relies heavily on continued political stability and support, including sustained governmental funding. Active and positive connections between the private breeding sector and large-scale gene banks are required to avoid possible conflict involving breeders’ rights and gene preservation.

The diversity of crop species will be promoted by the maintenance of crop gene banks by governments and non-governmental organizations, the continued use of diverse sources by plant breeders, especially in the public sector, and by the use of local cultivars and landraces by farmers. Breeders play a key role in determining what we eat, since the plant cultivars they develop begin the dietary food chain. There are considerably fewer vegetable plant breeding positions than in field crops, and vegetable breeders are often required to be knowledgeable about a more diverse group of crops. Vegetable crops include many different crops morphotypes with great diversity within. So careful consideration must be given to the type of graduate education appropriate for preparing new vegetable breeders, as well as continuing education to keep them current and productive. Since many breeders will work on different vegetable crops during a career, how can they be prepared for inevitable change, the types of which are difficult to imagine? Who would have predicted in 1990 that a mere 20 years later, many plant genomes are sequenced and DNA-based selection methods linked with phenotypic selection and electronic data handling are becoming standard practice? Few of the vegetabe plant breeders beginning their careers two decades ago had much knowledge about and experience with DNA technology, but in order to be productive and competitive today they have had to learn about and integrate new technology and methods. There is no reason to suppose that changes will be any less dramatic for future vegetable breeders. As with other courses of study, plant breeding graduate education must strike a balance between broad preparation and specialization. The number of vegetable breeders is small compared to other crops, therefore few if any graduate programs will be designated solely for vegetable. So too, limited number of university faculty working on vegetable crops will make it challenging to assemble a critical mass of faculty with research and teaching appointments and interest in a range of vegetable crop areas. Some pertinent questions for preparation of vegetable breeders should include: i) what types of new positions will be available in vegetable crop breeding; ii) what level of formal education will be appropriate; iii) how should preparation differ for global careers that may be in developed and developing countries/regions; iv) what skills will be needed for success; v) what vegetable crops should graduates be knowledgeable about; vi) are there educational knowledge, experience and skills that differ for horticultural vs. other agronomic crops; vii) what is needed to prepare vegetable breeders for career changes among different vegetable crops; and viii) what continuing education should be available for practicing breeders throughout their careers.

The majority of exports come from countries with preferred trade status under the Lomé Convention. For instance, in 2000, Kenya was the single largest supplier of green beans to the European Union, followed by Ethiopia, South Africa, and Switzerland. Kenya captured 53% of the total traded value. Côte d’Ivoire was the second largest supplier of green onions and shallots to the European Union, after New Zealand, capturing 16% of the total traded value . Although within this same period, many world governments have increased the levels of protectionism against imported produce or at least have slowed down the opening of their markets to increased exposure to imports. Still, compared to overall exports of agricultural products, the importance of vegetable exports remains minor, comprising less than 10% of the total value. However,nft hydroponic system in recent years the share has been rising and it is projected to continue to rise faster than other agricultural products.

During the 1990s, the value of fresh and processed vegetables imported by the European Union surpassed all other categories.In this situation many vegetable growers are eager to produce value-added horticultural crops as compared to field crops, and to obtain higher yields of high-quality products. International supermarket chains and large processors are becoming the main buyers of exported fresh vegetables  and small-scale growers worldwide need to be trained and organized to meet the challenge of sup-plying these international players. The major constraints to the participation of small-scale growers in international vegetable exports are the increased awareness that food quality and safety is receiving in the food trade and as well, an expansion in the number of non-tariff measures that developed countries apply to vegetable products . Sanitary issues refer to ensuring a safe food supply for consumers, while phytosanitary issues concern the protection of domestic crops from imported pests and diseases. The Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement  of the World Trade Organization specifies that countries can pursue their own levels of food safety standards.

However SPS issues are sometimes used as a protectionist tool against imports since multilateral trade agreements have reduced the ability to protect domestic production with tariffs and quotas.Thus exporters from less developed countries must be provided with training opportunities and information access on how to produce and supply safe products to developed countries. Traceability, phytosanitary, infrastructure, and productivity issues will continue to be a barrier for participation in the vegetable trade for most of the developing world. Application of agricultural chemicals is often poorly regulated, and industrial pollutants are common hazards in the soil, water, and air of developing countries. In the future, hydroponic nft system the inability of these countries to meet increasingly strict phytosanitary and traceability requirements for food products will constrict exports to developed countries . Small- scale growers and processors in developing countries will thus have to learn to supply safe products with traceability labels, if their participation in global trade is to continue and to expand. Technologies for safe and environmentally friendly vegetable production as well as capacity building should therefore gain particular attention for training to enable small-scale growers to partici-pate in vegetable production for international markets .

Food and nutritional security involves securing the whole food chain from production through to consumption. Horticulturists traditionally have focused on production, but issues such as equitable access to food and ensuring a balanced diet increasingly demand attention. Those with the least power and already substantially imbalanced diets are most affected by climate change and limited resources.We are all concerned by what we eat, and securing the food chain to provide a balanced diet , can point us toward an alternative way of viewing the role of horticulturists in a warming world. Vegetable breeding has to address and satisfy the needs of both the consumer and the grower. The general objectives for growers are good yield, disease and pest resistance, uniformity, and abiotic stress resistance. Objectives for consumers are quality, appearance, shelf life, taste, and nutritional value. Quality in vegetable crops, in contrast to field crops, is often more important than yield. For growers to survive, cultivars must be accepted by the market. Thus, color, appearance, taste, and shape are usually more important than productivity. For example, tomatoes to be used either fresh or in processing must have distinct quality characteristics.

The data presented in Table 3reveals that, Shannon index values of trees was higher  on northern aspect as compared to southern aspect  under agri-horticulture system. Contrary to this, the Simpson index  values of trees were found to be highest  on southern aspect. The higher species richness value  was recorded in northern aspect. The slightly higher equitability  was observed in southern aspect of agri-horticulture systems. Beta diversity was higher  on southern aspect while it was lower  on northern aspect of agri-horticulture system. Among the shrubs the higher diversity  and species richness  was ob-served in the southern aspect whereas higher Simpson Index , ebb and flow bench equitability  and beta diversity  was recorded in northern aspect . The tree diversity and species richness was higher on northern aspect as compared to southern aspect under agri-horticulture system whereas concentration of tree species was found to be higher on southern aspect. In contrarily the shrubs occupied higher diversity and species richness in the present study on the southern aspect under agri-horticulture system .

The diversity parameters of these agroforestry systems are comparable with the diversity indices reported by different workers for other regions in agroforestry and non-agroforestry systems . In an experiment  reported the Shannon-Weaver index  values from 0.41 to 2.31, concentration of dominance from 0.38 to 1.00 in the Thar desert under natural silvipastoral system which are higher than the present study. The Simpson Index for the home garden of Kerala in South India varied 0.44 to 0.86  which is quite high than the present study. In the present study, the higher diversity values on northern aspects may be due to the higher moisture con-tent and low insolation rates as compared to southern aspects, which receive the Sun rays in later part of the day, when the atmosphere is sufficiently warmed.The higher tree diversity in northern aspect was attributed to the presence of higher number of species , while the higher concentration of dominance in southern aspect, was due to the high relative proportion of few fruit species in these systems. The higher beta diversity in the southern aspect represented the higher niche diversification compared to northern aspect under agri-horticulture system.

The lower number of shrubs was found on north- ern aspect which might be due to higher slope in northern aspect under agri-horticulture systems. The tree canopy cover was higher on the northern aspect, which interrupted the growth and development of shrubs and may be another reason for the lower occurrence of shrubs.  Vegetables are grown worldwide in almost 200 countries and make up a major portion of the diet of humans in many parts of the world and play a significant role in human nutrition,4x8ft rolling benches especially as sources of vitamins , minerals, dietary fiber and phytochemicals . They can be also a major source of protein for the poor. Vegetables in the daily diet have been strongly associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health, good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer . Low vegetable intake, in unbalanced diets, has been estimated to cause about 31% of ischaemic heart disease and 11% of stroke worldwide. The International Agency for Research on Cancer  estimates that the preventable percentage of cancer due to such diets ranges from 5% 12% for all cancers, and 20% 30% for upper gastrointestinal tract cancers.

Some phyto-chemicals of vegetables are strong antioxidants and are thought to reduce the risk of chronic disease by protecting against free-radical damage, by modifying metabolic activation and detoxification of carcinogens, or even influencing processes that alter the course of tumor cells . “Hid-den hunger” or micronutrient and vitamin deficiencies is a pernicious problem around the world that is caused by a lack of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A, iodine and iron in the human diet. It affects the health of be-tween 2 and 3.5 billion people in the developing world and increases the risk of illness or death from infectious diseases and children do not develop to their full physical or mental potential . In much of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, dietary deficiencies of iron and vitamin A are major health problems, resulting in millions of deaths each year. Iron deficiency anemia is one of the world’s most prevalent dietary deficiencies. In a recent report on the world nutrition situation, the United Nations  estimated that 4 to 5 billion people are affected by iron deficiency anemia, with the most severe incidence in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Vanda bicoloris a horticultural important orchid found in North Eastern region of India especially in Nagaland. The species is considered to be vulnerable and demands efforts for conservation. Present study was undertaken to develop a distribution prediction model and climate suitability model for conservation of the species.Present study was aimed to bring out the environmental data within which the target species can persist and the geographical area where these set of environmental conditions are offered. Those areas offering similar climatic set as that of the training site are potential sites for their reintroduction taking into consideration the land-use pattern and biotic interaction in defining the species prevalence in the predicted regions as defined by Pearson and Dawson.Past studies have shown that the predictive performance decreases significantly when samples size are low  and in our study we investigated the performance of the models developed using low sample size using Vanda bicolor a rare orchid species as the target species.

To enable the assessment of the prediction ability of the model developed using small sample size we employed the Jackknife of Maximum Entropy. Vanda bicolor Griff. is a rare epiphytic orchid belonging to the genus Vanda under family-Orchidaceae, the plant has leafy stem enveloped almost fully covered by leaf sheaths and each with oblong, curved, and with little twisting in the middle, blueberry grow pot apically obliquely bilobed, each lobe tridentate leaves. Vanda bicolor flowers between March to June and inflorescence axillary, glabrous flowers white-purplish, mottled above, violet tinged beneath, with floral size of 4 6 cm. The plant is found mostly in Tropical Wet evergreen forest, tropical Semi Evergreen forest and Sub-tropical broad leaved wet hill forest, This orchidh as an endemic distribution restricted to Indo-Burma regions of India Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Sikkim; Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal . In the present study only 4 occurrence points were used to develop the model, all presence points are geo-referenced from primary ground surveys using GPS.The occurrence points are subjected to quality test with respect to and their positional accuracy was ascertained through Google earth, duplicates are identified and removed thus maintaining only one point within 1×1 Km2 to avoid sampling bias which would otherwise favor the climatic of those sites where sampling is highly concentrated.

As the number of presence points in below 20 1.5 ×Inter quartile range  method of identifying outliers is applied to check for outliers based on climate data developed from the environmental data obtained from World Clim Website at 30”. All climate data are cross checked for resolution accuracy and corrected to 30” pixel resolution.19 bio-climatic variables of zone 29 was obtained from World Clim at 30” pixel resolution, which consist of an interpolated datasets of temperature and precipitation, which are of primary importance for the plant to thrive and reproduce successfully at a particular area.All modeling works was carried out using MAXENT Version 3.3.3 K as our works are based on presence points only and has low sample size . MAXENT is designed to efficiently handle small sample size; all visualization was done in DIVA GIS 7.5.0, hydroponic bucket whereas all mapping works was carried out using ARC GIS 9.3.The model was developed using Jacknifing method , For validating model robustness, 12 replicated model runs was executed with a threshold rule of 10percentile training presence and employed cross validation technique for dividing the samples into replicate folds and using as test data all other parameters were kept at default. The Area under Curve  was graded according to.

The distribution potential of the model was classified into very low , low , medium , high  and very high  and basing on the prediction model the target plant was introduced in all the different prediction threshold to study the response of the plant in the different predicted areas. The model calibration gives a test AUC of 0.984, with a standard deviation of0.004. The AUC ranges from 0.5 for models that are no better than random to1.0 for models with perfect predictive ability . The AUC testis derived from the Receiver Operating Characteristic  Curve. The ROC curve thus describes the relationship between the proportion of observed presences correctly predicted  and the proportion of observed absences incorrectly predicted . Thus, an AUC value of 0.7 means the probability is 0.7 that a record selected at random from the set of presences will have a predicted value greater than a record selected at random from the set of absences. In the present study estimates of relative contributions of the environmental variables to the MAXENT model showed that Bio18 contributed the maximum  followed by Bio13 and contributing 16.2 and 9.4% .

The results of the experiments indicate a positive influence of the applied bioproducts on root growth characteristicsand the degree of mycorrhizal association in the roots of strawberry plants of the cultivars Elsanta andElkat. The biopreparations: BioFeed Quality, BioFeed Amin, Vinassa and Florovit Eko increased the intensityof root growth in strawberry plants in comparison with the control plants fertilizedwith NPK . Application of BioFeed Quality contributed to a six-fold increase in rootlength, and a seven-fold increase in root surface area. Compared to NPK fertilization, application of the preparationBioFeed Amin resulted in an eight-fold increase in root volume, and the biofertilizer Vinassa increased asmuch as 24-fold the number of root tips in Elkat strawberry plants. The number of root tips in Elsanta plants fertilizedwith the biofertilizer Florovit Eko increased three-fold in relation to the roots of plants fertilized withNPK. Compared to the roots of the strawberry cultivar Elsanta,4×8 flood tray the cultivar Elkat was characterized by longerroots, with a larger diameter, volume and surface area, and a greater number of root tips.

Similar results on thebeneficial effects of the same bioproducts on the growth of strawberry plants of the cultivar Elsanta in a greenhouseexperiment had been obtained by Sas Paszt et al. . On the basis of these results it can be concludedthat Micosat, Humus UP, manure, and Vinassa have a beneficial effect on root growth characteristics as comparedto control plants fertilized with NPK. Also Malusa et al. , in a greenhouse experiment, had reported apositive influence of fertilization with biopreparations on root growth in three varieties of strawberry plants.The tested biopreparations also had a positive influence on the degree of mycorrhizal association and thenumber of AMF spores obtained from the rhizosphere soil of strawberry plants. Micosat F and Humus UP contributed to a five-fold increase in mycorrhizal frequency, while the preparation Micosat F and manure increasedfrom two to four times the number of spores in the rhizosphere soil of strawberry plants .In the rhizospheresoil of Elkat strawberry plants, a greater number of spores was observed than in the soil collected from under theplants of the cultivar Elsanta. Sas Paszt et al. , in a greenhouse experiment, had reported similar results forElsanta plants.

They observed that the preparations Micosat F and Humus UP increased twenty-fold the degreeof mycorrhizal association in the roots, and Micosat F and BioFeed Amin contributed to the increase in thenumber of spores of AMF in the rhizosphere of strawberry plants. Malusa et al.  had found that inoculationof the roots of strawberry plants with the preparation Micosat F significantly increased the number of spores inthe rhizosphere of the strawberry cultivars in the study.The applied biopreparations such as Humus UP, BioFeed Amin and Florovit Eko contributed to a doubling ofthe total number of bacteria and filamentous fungi in the rhizosphere soil of Elsanta and Elkat strawberry plantscompared to NPK fertilization . The soil from the root zone of Elsanta plants was characterized by agreater number of bacteria and filamentous fungi than the rhizosphere soil collected from under the plants of thecultivar Elkat. Similar results were obtained by Ding et al. , who conducted an assessment of rhizospherebacteria and the effects of biofertilizers in reducing bacterial wilt in potatoes under greenhouse conditions.They showed that PGPR 1 increased three times the overall number of microorganisms and the number of actinomycetes,ebb flow tray while the application of PGPR 2 resulted in a doubling of the total number of fungi and the total numberof azotobacter bacteria in the soil.

Sas Paszt et al. examined the effects of biostimulators on plant growth and crop size and quality instrawberry plants of the cultivars Elsanta and Honeoye. Their results suggest that the use of the preparation Vinassaand BioFeed Amin, and the biopreparations Humus UP and Humus Active + Aktywit PM improved theyield and weight of strawberry fruit, and also the green colour of the leaves of strawberry plants, compared tocontrol plants. The best yields and the heaviest fruits were produced by strawberry plants of the cultivar Elsantaas a result of foliar spraying with the preparation Vinassa. The focus on business sustainability rather than generic aspects of sustainabilityhas attracted more attention to sustainability in all sectors including food andhorticulture. Unlike other industries, food sector has received more public attentionin regard to sustainability . This led to increased food costs. Sustainability issues are complex by nature .

One component of the research is a household livelihood survey that asked detailed sector-specific questions on income sources of all household members.The respondent was asked which among the following six categories of income sources the household depends on: 1) fishing; 2) tourism; 3) crop farming; 4) livestock and poultry; 5) government/public service; and 6) others. After identifying one income source, a series of questions that would allow calculation of net income or revenues from each income source were asked. In the case of farming,questions on the types of crops, frequency, volume and value of harvests, and costs of farming inputs were asked.Apart from income, questions on consumption and subjected happiness were asked to assess the over-all welfare conditions of the households. For subjective happiness, mobile vertical grow tables the actual question posed in the survey instrument followed the 10-point numerical rating scale of Cantril : “How happy or contented are you with your current living conditions.

Please answer using a scale of 0 – 10 where 0 is very unhappy and discontented and 10 is perfectly happy and contented.”A total sample of 489 respondent households was generated through in-person interview by experienced enumerators of the Research Center of Notre Dame of Marbel University during the month of February 2019. All 19 barangays of LakeSebu except Ned were included in the sampling frame. Farming households in Ned are very far from each other, which makes the survey method very difficult to implement in the barangay. Hence, an FGD with farmers in Barangay Ned wasconducted1.Majority of the household-respondents were engaged in crop farming activities, indicating that the means of livelihood in the Municipality is still predominantly crop farming despite the growing tourism and fishing  industries that provide livelihood to only 94 or 19.22% and 50 or 10.22%, respectively, of surveyed households. About a quarter of these crop-farming households indicated that farming is the primary income source of the household. Farm production data such as crop type, farm area, harvest and inputs were obtained from 204 farming household respondents.

One hundred fifty or 73.53% of the surveyed households are into corn farming, while only 20 or 9.80% are into rice farming. A number of surveyed farming households are planting tomatoes , abaca , banana , and coconut. Other crops planted by surveyed farming households are bell pepper , rubber , squash , Baguio beans , durian ,eggplant , string beans , radish , and taro, okra, coffee, green of fingerchili,mobile vertical farm chili pepper, pineapple and Chinese cabbage . According to the Municipal Agriculturist of Lake Sebu, the farming households are mostly the indigenous T’boli who prefer and are more used to planting corn, their traditional crop, and are reluctant to shift to other agricultural crops  being promoted by the government.Table 2 summarizes findings from the survey on revenues, costs and net income of farming households, by crop type. Annual gross farming income or revenues are calculated by multiplying production volume per harvest/cropping season by the number of harvest/cropping seasons per year and then, by the price per unit of harvest. Price per unit of harvest was asked directly in the survey,and/or derived from revenue figures and production volume indicated by surveyed households.

Costs include cash costs, non-cash costs and imputed costs for the following items: labor , materials , hauling and trucking , drying, lease and rentals, and irrigation. Based on survey results, corn farming appears to be the least profitable. On the average, a corn farming household cultivates an average of 1.71 ha, generates an annual gross revenues or gross value of production of PHP65,656. However,substantial farming costs of PHP51,281 which wipes out 78.11% of revenues leaves very little to the household.Net returns per hectare of corn farm is very low at P8,405.99, and the resulting net returns to cost ratio from corn farming turns out to be the lowest among all crops farmed in the Municipality. On the other hand, rice farming households in Lake Sebu till just an average of 1.19 ha but generate annual revenues ofPHP89,349, the highest among all crops. Production costs of PHP46,803 is even lower than corn’s, thereby generating net income to the rice farming household that is about thrice the amount realized by the average corn farming household.

In fact, the approximate contribution of rice to the total calories being consumed is 30, 30, 50, 70, 60, 50, and30% for China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Philippines, and South Korea, respectively . It is reported that, nearly a half of the world population consumes rice as their principal food. Alongside this, the labour force required to produce rice provides livelihood especially to those belonging to the under privileged.The steady rise in population further underlines the importance of rice. Compared to other field crops, rice is most widely grown under irrigated condition which accounts for about 50% of the total amount of water diverted for irrigation, which in itself accounts for 80% of the amount of fresh water diverted. This is due to the high unproductive water losses by evaporation, surface run-off, and percolation. Producing one kilogram of unprocessed rice grain under irrigation is estimated to use between 1500 and 5000 L of water, depending on the local climate, soil type and rice variety led grow lights. However, declining water availability threatens the sustainability of traditional flood-irrigated rice ecosystems .

In Asia, it is predicted that 17 million hectares of irrigated rice areas may have “physical water scarcity” and 22 million hectares areas may be subject to “economic water scarcity” by 2025 . In Asia, where about 60% of the world’s population lives, food security is challenged by increasing food demand and threatened by declining water availability . It is, therefore, no longer feasible to flood rice fields for better crop establishment and weed control . Among different water-saving approaches, aerobic rice cultivation has come up with a huge success in different parts of the world.Growing rice in non-saturated and non-puddled aerobic soil is a promising water-wise technique of rice cultivation under the context of ever-mounting water scarcity. Growing rice under aerobic conditions requires 36% – 41%less water than under the conventional method . In response to the labour and water shortage problem, some alternative rice production methods were suggested by researchers worldwide including alternate wetting and drying , system of rice intensification, and raised bed for saturated soil culture. Compared with flooded rice, aerobic rice had lower production cost, higher water productivity, and a comparable outcome.Weeds are a major yield limiting factor in rice production , and the literature reporting yield losses is numerous. Globally, actual rice yield losses due to pests have been estimated at 40%, strawberry gutter system of which weeds have the highest loss potential.

The worldwide estimated rice yield loss due to weeds is around 10%of the total production . Yield reduction due to weeds is more critical in direct seeded rice than in transplanted rice. In dry seeded aerobic rice,relative yield loss caused by weeds is 50% – 91% , while in transplanted rice,yield loss has been estimated to be only 13% . Among the rice ecosystems,yield losses are the highest in aerobic rice . In extreme cases, weed infestation may cause complete failure of aerobic rice . Weeds persist by adapting to cultural practices, and every cultural practice influences the competitive ability of both the crop and weed resulting complex interactions . Cultural approaches play significant role to determine the competitiveness of a crop with weeds for above ground and below ground resources and hence might influence weed management. Integrated weed management strategies offer several options, but risks of developing resistant weed biotypes ,and environmental hazard resulting from herbicides from chemical control, and labor-intensive manual weeding methods  demand an eco-friendly and less labor-dependent weed management system for sustainable aerobic rice production.As observed by many researchers, the performance of herbicides can be enhanced if crop varieties with higher weed competitiveness are used especially in herbicide-dominant systems . Weed competitiveness comprises two components:weed suppressive ability—the ability to lessen weed growth through competition, and weed tolerance—the capability of maintaining potential yields in the presence of weeds . The potentiality of using weed competitive variety in integrated weed management has been documented in many crops including rice.

The higher weed suppression potential of Jasmine 85 and Rondo observed in the experiment is largely due to higher plant stand and better seedling establishment than other rice varieties. Main characteristics imparting weed competitiveness to rice include selection of cultivars, seeding vigor, early and faster seedling establishment, shoot-root characteristics and self-supportive allelopathy. Oluyemi, A.T. reported that Jasmine 85 grows rapidly, gives high yield,carries good resistance to pests in Southern United States and also suppresses the growth of weeds in surrounding area. Likewise, Gealy and Yan reported that Rondo has high yield potential and ability to suppress or tolerate rice pests,including weeds. Crop yield is determined by a combination of environmental factors and farm management practices that in turn influence soil fertility and plant nutrition. Despite applying 180 kg ha−1 mineral fertilizer that is more than twice the 87 kg ha−1 applied in developed nations, organic biomass was better than mineral fertilizer that was only better than the control. The increased tomato yield recorded for Mucuna and Tithonia treatments is consistent with the results reported in other studies that attributed greater crop yields to improved soil nutrients from organic matter and adequate soil moisture, bulk density and temperature.

Hence,hydroponic nft channel the increased tomato yields with organic amendments can be attributed to increased soil nutrient availability and improved plant nutrient uptake resulting from better soil physical, chemical and biological properties . Mulching with plant materials increases yields by stimulating decomposition and mineralisation in the rhizosphere, which improves soil nutrient availability, organic matter content, structure, moisture and temperature. In addition, differences in the quality of plant materials, nutrient content, texture, rate of decomposition, growth and vegetative matter turn over, availability and cost are important for effective ISFM.Besides the influence of Mucuna and Tithonia on soil properties, they possibly enhanced both root and shoot physiological and morphological developments, which in turn increased productivity. This is consistent with greater root production and lifespan induced by compost and mulching as compared to mineral fertilizer . In addition, mineral fertilizer induces high nitrate pulses, which could easily be leached as a result of its high mobility in the soil, coupled with the heavy rainfall condition of the study area. However, organic inputs would have released nitrogen more slowly, which enabled regular supply of nitrogen ions during a longer period of time to the root system that enhanced branching of axial roots and elongation of lateral roots, leading greater nutrient acquisition . Furthermore, decomposing Mucuna and Tithonia biomass likely increased humic substances in the rhizosphere that modified root morphology and induced proliferation of lateral roots and root hairs,nft growing system as well as increased the rate of differentiation for root cells.

Hence, greater tomato yields recorded for Mucuna and Tithonia amendments could be due to the interaction of improved soil properties and plant development ,which resulted in improved plant nutrition. The lack of significant difference or correlation between the ISFM treatments and tomato fresh weight could be attributed to the fact that some of the potential differences were compensated by water absorption from the soil that supplies all the water that the plant needs. It is suggested that comparison should be done on dry weight basis, which was not applicable in this case as the consumers preferably purchased fresh tomato fruits still having the original water content.Although ISFM considers combining appropriate micro doses of mineral fertilizer either solely or in combination with locally available organic materials as an important strategy for soil fertility improvement, the use of different organic inputs either solely or combined would be a more sustainable ISFM alternative. Accordingly,the best tomato yield was recorded with the combined biomass of Mucuna + Tithonia and the sole Tithoniabiomass application as compared to sole Mucuna, mineral fertilizer or the control. This is consistent with who demonstrated advantages of Tithonia + Poultry manure compost and sole Tithonia for improving soil properties and tomato performance .

Pelling argued that depending on vision of adaptation responses can be considered as; 1) “Resilience” when measures strive to maintain systemic function and the status quo or bring marginal change in a changing climate by which the “normal” state of the adaptation unit continues to function in the context of constraining factors, without explicitly challenging these, 2) “Transitional” when measures push against the status quo by suggesting new ways of doing things are necessary as a result of experienced or predicted change which therefore aims to bring incremental change within established regime and sys-tem of concern, and 3) “Transformational” when adaptation measures allow the scale of change required to bring major, non-marginal change disturbing the relationship between society and environment. This type of adaptation therefore envisions reconfiguring the structure of development to enable adaptation which necessitates establishing completely new ways of doing things, ebb and flow table robust institutions, practices, processes and forms of governance.

The study area, Borana pastoral and agropastoral systems, is part of the Borana administrative zone situated in Oromiya Regional State, southern Ethiopia . Geographically, the study area lies in the tropics region, and is located between 37 and 41 degrees E, and 3 and 7 degrees N. The study targeted lowland districts of the Borana Plateau which constitute the heartland of the Borana pastoral and agropastoral systems  subject to recurrent climate-induced stresses. The Borana people are an ethnic group of pastoralists inhabiting the arid and semi-arid areas of southern Ethiopia and the northern part of neighbouring Kenya. Strong social networks and bonds are important features of their collective lifestyle including natural resource governance. Traditional institutions are important entities in managing access to common property re-sources necessary to support the extensive livestock production system and collectively respond to climate perturbations. Though long term local climate data are not available to accurately examine potential changes in climate, existing limited data show that the study area exhibits high level of climate variability which is typical feature of dryland cli-mates.

The seasonal rainfall demonstrated pronounced level of interseasonal and interannual variability which was locally perceived and identified to be major challenge for agricultural production in the area flood table. Variability in terms of amount with a declining trend often going into extreme lows be-low average and uneven distribution are climatic attributes felt by rural communities relying on seasonal rain for agricultural production. Particularly, the long rainy season exhibited a rapid decline since the end of 1980s until recently. Air temperature in the study area has much less inter-seasonal and inter-annual variation as compared to rainfall which is similar phenomena to most of the sub-Saharan Africa . Moreover, the air temperature deviation has not been felt by rural communities and was mentioned to be less important than fluctuations in rainfall. Higher temperatures during peak drought periods raises the demand for more livestock water to substitute for loss due to dehydration and puts increased evaporative demand on plants. Farming systems of the Boran lowlands are complex and heterogeneous pre-dominantly characterized by semi-arid pastoral and agro-pastoral systems. Small-scale extensive livestock production, particularly transhumant pastoralism is the pillar of the economy, and the main source of food and income for rural households.

The Borana zone has 1.6 million cattle, 1.2 million small ruminants, 0.1 million equines, 0.2 million camel and 0.2 million poultry with human population of 1.1 million having density of 24 persons per square kilometre . The characterization of Boran pastoralists as ‘livestock producers’ is arguable because of poor profit and market-orientation of the traditional agriculture. Rather they are classified as ‘livestock keepers’ because livestock production is seen more as a way of life than a western world style profit oriented agribusiness. In the face of climate driven pervasive socio-economic and ecological changes, expanding drought-tolerant maize cultivation, increasingly popular camel and goat husbandry, and shrinking livestock holding per household characterize the dynamics in the farming system.