Category: hydroponic agriculture

The Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan is situated 14 km to the north of Mansehra town on the right side of Karakurum highway in a serene, peaceful, rural and pollution-free environment. The vast plain of Pakhal with its agricultural wealth irrigated by the river Siran and tea gardens surrounds the University. The ladybird beetles  are bright in colors. Female is larger than males. The haemolymph is repellent by having a repulsive smell with containing various alkaloid toxins. The bright red on black or black on red color of some adults is aposematic. Both are defensive mechanisms against predators. They are associated with good fortune in many myths and legends. Scientists increasingly prefer the names of ladybird beetles or lady beetles, as they have great economic importance as predators to many pests and environmental or bio-indicator. They may be entomophagous or phytophagous and expose both potential and real effects on the life of their hosts. Cannibalism of eggs, larvae and pupae are common, especially when prey is scarce. They have several generations in a year and reproduction is slowed in winter, when adults may hibernate. They require 190.3 ± 10.2 days to complete a generation under laboratory conditions. The adonis ladybird, Hippodamia variegate  completes 4 generations per season on the alfalfa crop, Medicago sativa L. . There have typical differences in their behavior between 2 trophic groups. First one is feeding on aphids; development, age and movement will be faster, and is also typically larger and lays their eggs in clusters. Second one is feeding on scale insects which develops more slowly, lives longer, moves more slowly, and is typically smaller and lays their eggs singly .During the present survey, the study area was divided into 3 quadrated, i.e., residential area, administration area and main campus, and visited 2 h in each morning and evening. In total 300 individuals, 7 species from 6 genera belonging to subfamily Coccinellinea and tribe Coccinellini were collected.

Different species of the ladybird beetles were reported by Gilani from Faisal Abad, Shah from Peshawar, Irshad and Rehman et al.from Pakistan. The present study reported them from Hazara University, Pakistan. Trehan and Malhotra had reported from India and Zhang and Han from China. Therefore, these studies showed that their species are cosmopolitan. However, no new species was collected. At the present, the distributions of these insects were different in three quadrants of the study sites, however, ecological conditions of these areas were more or less the same, and moreover, human activities were the highest in administration area and the lowest in residential area than main campus. When comparing the vegetation, mobile vertical grow tables we found that in residential area, the ladybird beetles were the densest, but in administration area, they were sparsely grown compared with main campus. There might be possibility that residential area was the most frequently visited and administration area was the most rarely visited. During the present study, the most encountered species was C. septempunctata whose in which 220 individuals were collected: 150 were from residential area and 70 were from main campus. Rahatullah et al. reported total 50 specimens of C. septempunctata collected during a survey was conducted in district Dir Lower over a period of 2 years. This species was previously reported by Rehman et al., Gilani, Shah and Irshad from Pakistan. Due to their broad habitat range and voracity, there has been concern that C7  may pose a threat to native Aphidophagous coccinellids. Sometimes C. septempunctata has been used as a model for polyphagous predators. Habitat choice and foraging behaviour have attracted considerable interest in studies of the ecology and life history of C. septempunctata. Since it is a polyphagous species, Vet and Dicke hypothesized it, as a capacity for learning. Therefore, the present studies provide us awareness, education and learning. At the present, the second most encountered species was the H. variegate, in which 32 individuals were collected: eight were from residential and 24 were from administration area of Hazara University. Gilani, Shah and Irshad also reported it from Pakistan. Therefore, this species is common in Pakistan. An extensive survey of predatory Coccinellid beetles  was conducted in the Chitral district, Pakistan, over a period of 7 months .

Total 2600 individuals of Coccinellids were collected from 12 different localities having altitudes from 1219.40 – 2651.63 m. Twelve different species belonging to 9 genera of 3 tribes and 2 sub-families were recorded. Two sub-families, viz., Coccinellinae and Chilocorinae were identified. However, the present survey was conducted in terms of short duration , limited study area  and no finding, moreover, a total 300 specimens, 7 species from 6 genera belonging to subfamily Coccinellinea and tribe Coccinellini were collected. Further, only 4 more species were found by Khan et al. If an extensive survey will be done in the present study area, it will provide more information about the ladybird beetles. Sathe and Bhosale reported 21 species of ladybird beetles feeding on aphids and several soft-bodied homopterous pests of agricultural and forest plants from Maharashtra. Kandibane et al. reported 7 species of predatory ladybird beetles in an irrigated rice ecosystem at Madurai, Tamil Nadu. Fish et al. stated globally invasive hemipteran pests have adversely affected the production of many food, fiber and ornamental crops. The globalization and the concomitant increase in international travel and commerce are directly-correlated to the resultant enhancement in introduction and spread of exotic invasive species, which cause loss of biodiversity, modify the habitat and cause extensive environmental and economic harm. While predatory species are often used as biological control agents, introduced species of ladybirds such as Coccinella septempunctata in North America was outcompeted, displaced native coccinellids, and became pests in their own right. The present results suggested that the ladybird beetles community structure in 3 study sites with different vegetation differs greatly as described above. The number of species found in the administration area was minimum compared to main campus and residential area because of more construction with greater number of people there. The diversity of ladybird beetles seen at 3 sites in the current study was in accord with Omkar and Bind that reported only 6 – 7 species of the ladybird beetles from agricultural and horticultural plants of Utra Pradesh. Most species of ladybirds are considered beneficial because they are predators of Homoptera, many of which are considered to be pests. These predatory ladybirds contribute to the regulation of populations of their prey, and in some situations contribute a high level of regulation.

Many insect groups are important mutualistic partners of plants, mostly due to their roles as pollinators. Volatiles from plant flowers attract nectar-seeking and pollen-collecting pollinators to visit and pollinate by supplying rewards. Meanwhile, volatiles from floral branches prevent flower-robbers from foraging and pollinating . Components from floral scents and herbivore induced flower-volatiles include alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, ester, terpenes, nitrogen compounds, hydrocarbons, as well as other chemicals varying with plant species and volatile collection types. Floral scents from 4 cultivated varieties Prunus persica were analysed , but the effect of these volatiles on pollinator attraction is unknown. The evolution of floral traits in the context of attracting mutualist or antagonist pollinators may place conflicting selection pressures on plant traits, and the effect of these volatiles on pollinator attraction is indeterminate. Many flowers produce volatiles at times when pollinators are most active; VOCs such as a kind of muurolene are characteristics of the syconium pollen receptive diurnal phase, and may attract the diurnally-active pollinating wasps. In some specialized pollination context, only one or a few specific floral volatiles mediate communication with specific pollinator species, and pollinators are attracted by a blend of widespread volatiles.Pollinator visitation is influenced by composition and quantity of flower volatile in long distance, dependent on the pollinator rewards, i.e., pollen and nectar in short distance, and volatile emission by flowers changed upon feeding by herbivores on the leaves when Pieris brassicae caterpillars were allowed to feed only on the leaves of Brassica nigra plants. The volatile composition of floral scents is not static, spatiotemporal variability in the identity and complexity of scent bouquets could provide critical information for the mediation of plant-insect communication because floral visitors can use subtle difference involatiles to make foraging choices. Floral scents have the advantage in that they can supply pollinators a species-specific identity to flowers with their potentially infinite composition and diversity. That Prunus persica fruits need flower-visiting insects, and floral scents play a key role in pollinating. We investigated the floral scent volatile bouquets of Prunus persica, and tested VOCs composition, similarity of different trees, dominant floral volatile dynamic, floral scents correlation with flower-visiting insect community richness, mobile vertical farm abundance and diversity before, on or after volatiles sampled day with dividing sampled insects visiting floral branches by odd or even method. We report the use of living flowers captured by closely and circularly head space way in adsorbent tubes and ATD-GC/MS analysed 20 VOCs from Prunus persica flowers, and floral scents correlation with flower-visiting insect richness, abundance and diversity, which are special and dominant floral scents and what the similarity from Prunus persica in different spatial and temporal branches.

Are the dominant floral odors temporal dynamic varied differently, and floral odors with difference from temporal trees. We expected that get the special and dominant floral odors from different sampled branches, which led us to hypothesize the potential attractive floral odors that insects locating on trees. Does VOCs correlate with floral insect richness, abundance and diversity, we want to know that the insects visiting odd or even flower branches correlated with floral odor closely, so that definite the branches kept when pruning Prunus persica, and promote harvest to get economic benefit.Sample sites that the 1280.0 m altitude of sunny and shady slope habitats in Wan Bailin Ecological Garden, Shanxi Province, China , with temperature 9˚C – 31˚C, humidity 27% – 48%, precipitation probability 5% – 90%, sunshine duration 2 – 12 h, 2 – 3 level wind, UV intensity weak-strong, atmospheric pressure 1002 – 1016 Pa, 05:00-5:52 sunrise, 19:06-19:53 sundown. 186 plants Prunus persica are surrounded by the Sophora japonica in the West, Berberis thunbergii cv. Atropurpurea pruning balls in the South, and Malus micromalus in the Northeast. On shady slope, 169 plants of Prunus persica are surrounded by Armeniaca vulgaris in the West, Salix matsudana in the South, and garden road in the North . Volatile collections were conducted from 2 trees of Prunus persica on sunny and shady slope on 29 April 2016, respectively. Two fully blooming floral branches of each tree were sampled. Food grade polythene bag  was used to include the branches with inlet and outlet glass tube with absorbent carbasus . QC-1S Atmospheric sampling instrument  was used to generate the air flow of 1.5 L/min filtered with activated carbon. Each collection was done 10 min. Volatiles analysis were conducted by Turbo Matrix 50 ATD  and Clarus GC /Clarus 600 T MS   with Turb oMass 5.4.2 recognition pattern were used for chemical analysis of collected volatiles. Carrier gas velocity was 2.0 ml/min. First stage thermal desorption temperature  was 260˚C, keeping for 10 min. Cold trap temperature in the first stage thermal desorption process was −30˚C. From first stage to second stage thermal desorption process heat-up speed was 40˚C/s. The second stage thermal desorption temperature was 300˚C, maintaining for 5 min. Thermal desorption mode was import diversion, general dry for 10 min. Desorption flow rate 25.00 ml/min, import diversion flow rate 10.00 ml/min, export diversion flow rate 20.00 ml/min. Chromatographic separation condition that chromatographic column was Elite-5 MS capillary column . Temperature was programmed from 40˚C  to 180˚C at 6˚C/min , then increased to 270˚C at 15˚C/min that hold 3 min. Mass spectrometric detection condition was 220˚C ion source temperature, 250˚C interface temperature and 29 – 600 amu m/z scan range. Constituents were identified by peak area normalization method that calculate relative percentage content of each volatile compound from Prunus persica flower in comparison with standard spetral library NIST08 and combined with the retention time and related chemical experience, according to ATD-GC/MS get TIC effective peak.

Amount of agronomical valuable structure was the highest on biofarm and varies from 42% in the depth 0 – 20 cm, 55% in 20 – 40 cm to 69% in the depth 40 – 60 cm. In comparison the traditional cultivation shows 40% in the depth of 0 – 20 cm, 31% in 20 – 40 cm and 47% in the depth of 40 – 60 cm. Amount of microaggregates  shows that soil with traditional cultivation has the highest portion of such aggregates in the depth from 20 to 40 cm. All these results can be evaluated as lower aggregates stability, which is direct effect of ploughing in comparison with the soil on organic farm, which is cultivated without ploughing.Our results showed that land use connected with specialised management practices directly influence the spatial distribution as well as functioning ecology of earthworms in land. The earthworms density in soil monoliths from ecological farm recalculated per square meter shows that the amount of individuals was  249 – 246 – 7 for 5 years ecological farming, 3 years ecological farming and conventional farming respectively. Ploughing contributes to a reduction in the population size and diversity of species of earthworms, as it physically disturbs the environment of earthworms and causes mechanical damage to earthworms, especially epigeic and anecic ones. These conclusions were clearly confirmed also in our study. In organic farm, where the amount of earthworms’ individuals exceeds several times the respective number in conventional soil cultivation, the soil is not ploughed, not turned, just cultivated by spade. Concerning biomass, these results show significant positive effect of organic farming on the amount of earthworms in comparison to conventional cultivation . The biomass was the highest in 3 years ecological farming comparing with 5 years. Experimental farm Borovce Microbial activity expressed as CO2 productivity and dehydrogenase activity shows positive effect of soil saving technologies—good agricultural practices on its development . Soil saving cultivation practises increase dramatically the CO2 productivity in comparison with conventional cultivation.

The best results are in soil with mulch. Dehydrogenase activity is an accelerator of biological oxidation of organic substances in soil. It is influenced by several soil factors as soil type, pH and organic carbon. According to Mucha the dehydrogenase activity is influenced by complex of agrotechnical measures focused on increase of biological potential. This is in accordance with our findings. The dehydrogenase increases together with humus content, hydroponic bucket which can be visible from Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively. In comparison with conventional cultivation was always higher for alternative technologies, where also the highest humus content was determined.Concerning soil moisture, the increase in it was the highest in mulch type of cultivation  followed with minimum and no-till. Except the depth 0.10 – 0.20 m the mulch had higher soil moisture content in comparison with the other soil saving cultivation technologies. From the depth of 0.4 m the minimum till field had the second highest soil moisture content. It can be the reason of better soil permeability after minimum till in comparison with no-till. Soil moisture content was always the lowest in the field with conventional cultivation but this can be also influence of plants uptake as the yield was high here.The yield was not always the highest on soil with soil saving technologies applied . In case of winter wheat and corn the trend has been balanced but in case of soybean and mainly in case of spring barley the trend was declining for the yield average in soils with alternative cultivation in comparison with traditional one.Anyhow, the positive environmental effect is considerable and it is possible to expect in prolonged time also its positive effect on soil fertility as well. At present time, it is important to consider the soil cultivation not only according to yields but also according to its influence on soil properties development from long timeline and according to the principles of sustainability. Cultivation of soil without ploughing—turning the soil can have several positive effects. It influences soil aggregates stability and biodiversity—reflected as development of rich earthworms population. All these influences are complex processes including soil physical, chemical and biological regimes. Dehydrogenase activity  is influenced by the presence of readily degradable organic substances but humus content as well. It reflects the level of microbiological settlement of the soil as well as the supply of soil with organic matter. It is part of the metabolism of all microorganisms.

Even if several external agents can influence it, DHA can be used as a general indicator of soil biological activity. DHA increases together with CO2 production in soil and shows positive effect of soil saving cultivation technologies. Increase of stable humus content is also complex, time demanding process. Soil as CO2 sink has an important role in climate change mitigation. The yield on the farm in Borovce shows that not always the good agricultural practises have to lead immediately to the increase of soil fertility but from environmental point of view and with respect to cultivation of soil in sustainable way are these practises a good and achievable solution.Forest is defined as an area occupied by ecosystems where the minimum density of tree cover is 10 percent, with a height of more than 3 meters, usually associated with flora and fauna, on natural soils. From a botanical point of view, a forest is a plant formation, characterized by the importance of the tree layer, but also includes shrubs, low plants, climbers and epiphytes. Many forest trees live in symbiosis with fungi and other microorganisms, and many depend on animals for the transport of pollen, seeds or propagules. From an ecological point of view, the forest is a complex and rich ecosystem, offering many habitats to many species and populations of animals, plants, fungal and microbial maintaining, for the most part, interdependence relationships. Forest degradation is defined by changes that negatively affect forest population, particularly reducing production capacity . Therefore, forest degradation is not to be confused with deforestation. Tropical ecosystems are the main source of emissions due to land-use change and the greatest uncertainty is that emissions come from African rainforests . More than 99% of the forest area in the Congo Basin area is made up of primary or regenerated as opposed to plantations. Today, these forests, like many others around the world, are being de-deeded and degraded resulting in a fragmentation of the landscape, and the consequences of which are not only for ecosystems but also for the way of life of local people are becoming increasingly critical. This loss is also one of the causes of climate change that currently threatens the survival of the human species on the planet. Deforestation and forest degradation are two phenomena that under the basis of the implementation of a new economic incentive instrument adopted at the 13th Conference of the Parties  of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Bali in 2006.

DRC is firmly committed to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, there is still no national consensus on the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. Changes in land use, such as deforestation and forest degradation, are a major source of global carbon dioxide emissions after the burning of fossil fuels. Deforestation in Africa and mainly in the Democratic Republic of Congo is a poorly measured phenomenon. Forest ecosystems in the Democratic Republic of Congo contain nearly half of Africa’s dense, wet tropical forests. This resource is under increasing pressure from commercial or artisanal logging, slash-and-burn itinerant agriculture, firewood harvesting, mining and urban centre expansion. Deforestation, which leads to a reduction in forest cover in favour of other land use and use, is the result of multiple causes. These causes are often controversial, and impacts, depending on local conditions, can be more or less intense depending on the area. It is also worth noting the difficulty of assessing the direct factors of deforestation, and indirect factors related to other underlying issues may be in fact responsible for deforestation. Thus, logging can be carried out according to principles of sustainable management but generate indirect effects; for example, opening forest trails can eventually lead to their permanent or itinerant use by farmers seeking land to be cleared for their livelihoods. The attribution of deforestation to direct or underlying causes can, if not taken precautions, stackable planters produce double-counting in the overall estimate of deforestation. Deforestation corresponds to a clear conversion of forest land to other uses with a reduction in forest cover to a density of less than 10 percent. Deforestation and degradation are not evenly distributed throughout the country, and it is worth noting the existence of “hot spots” of deforestation, particularly on the edge of major cities in the Savanicole strip  as well as in the Bowl , in the North of the Province of Ecuador as well as in the Albertin Rift area. The Democratic Republic of Congo  is the border of deforestation in Africa where 22 billion metric tons of carbons are stored in living biomass its forests and forested savannahs. Rapid deforestation here will not only lead to loss of local ecosystem services and goods, but it can also lead to significant carbon emissions. The consequences of deforestation are many. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the plundering of the forest and the clear cuts caused by the increase in logging roads and the devastation of the forest could lead to the loss of 40% of the forest cover. The three main drivers of deforestation and degradation cited by the study are agriculture commercial  and food crops  and the cutting of firewood . Failure to act quickly, the study asserts that around 10% of the forest land of the Democratic Republic of Congo is at risk of disappearing by 2030, and 15% – 20% by 2050. Study says deforestation is expected to reduce DRC’s forest heritage from 12 to 13 million ha by 2030.The Democratic Republic of Congo  is one of the largest countries in Africa, covering 2,345,409 km2 . Located straddling Ecuador, it shares nearly 9000 km of borders with nine countries . Stretching across Ecuador, the Democratic Republic of Congo enjoys a warm and humid equatorial climate all year round in the Central, and tropical in the south and north with alternating dry and rainy seasons. Rainfall is plentiful and the DRC has 52% of the continent’s total fresh water reserves. It has an extensive, dense and well-distributed water system throughout its territory. It is dominated by the Congo Basin, a 4670-m long river with a flow of 30,000 m3 per second at the mouth, making it the second largest in the world after the Amazon.

The relief of the Democratic Republic of Congo is very diverse with a large bowl to the centre and west, bordered to the east and south by high plateaus. The east of the country is dominated by a volcanic chain interspersed with lakes. Vegetation defines three major natural regions: the dense rainforest in the central basin and to the west; dry forests and savannahs in the southern part and on the northern fringe; and mountain ecosystems along the eastern border. The forest, which covers 155 million hectares of the national territory, makes the DRC one of the largest forest countries in the world, with more than half of the forest in the Congo Basin.  The Democratic Republic of Congo has 155 million hectares  of forests divided between 4 major ecosystems: dense rainforest, mountain forests, clear forest  and forest-savannah mosaic. All Congolese forests currently sequester a carbon stock that can be estimated at 40 Gigatonnes , the equivalent of 140 Gt of potential CO2 emissions . The historical deforestation rate has fluctuated between 0.2% and 0.3% in the DRC over the last 20 years, which is relatively low compared to the global average  over the same period . DRC has 19.441 million tonnes of carbon stocks in live forest biomass . The Democratic Republic of Congo has 155 million hectares of forest.

The length of the shoots of the second order is up to 80 – 100 cm. In the phase of mass flowering, the plant forms from 35 to 40 flowers on one bush. At the same time, the fruiting phase began. This month, the simultaneous formation of buds, flowers and fruits was observed on one plant. The flowering process depends on the climatic conditions. With an increase in air temperature and a decrease in relative humidity, the number of opened flowers increases. The caper’s need for high temperature, both during seed germination and during growth and development, once again confirms its thermophilic nature. In the summer months, there is a very intensive growth and development of capers. In mid-July, the length of annual shoots reached up to 4 m. The length of the leaves is 4 × 4.5 × 5 cm, the length of the fruit is 4 cm, the width is 2 – 3 cm. the drying of the leaves was not noted. In August-September, the growth and development of the plant continues, in October at a temperature of +16˚C – 17˚C, the leaves dry out and the aboveground part dies off completely.People that were living in large and dense cities, a good quality of life depend largely on the quality of the urban environment. Nearly four out of five European citizens live in urban areas where existing environmental quality limits are breached. Public parks and private gardens play a critical role in supporting biodiversity and providing important ecosystem services in urban areas. Especially, green areas outside hospitals are considered not only to be necessary but also beneficial. Renewed interest in nature within the hospital environment has resulted in research documenting the benefits of nature for reducing stress, improving mood, and increasing healthcare satisfaction.

Studies described that even a few minutes of visual exposure to nature can significantly reduce patients stress. The benefits that individuals can derive from plants and contact with nature have been discussed for thousands of years. Historical accounts suggest that this belief was an organizing principle for the exemplary hospitals of the past, where a primary goal was making patients more comfortable. The main goal of this study was to investigate users’ attitudes towards landscape design regarding the existing and future improvements to outdoor grounds and spaces,stacking pots by using a case study in order to collect data from the hospital users. The objectives of the study were: to develop an understanding of users experience within the landscape surrounding the hospital buildings; to investigate users considerations of landscape design in the improvement and maintenance of the landscape; to recognize and estimate the characteristics that the users who were surveyed felt they had contributed towards a sustainable friendly environment; to outline a set of recommendations to improve the landscape that surrounds the hospitals; and to consider users’ needs in the planning and design of hospitals.Findings from several studies of non-patient groups suggest that even brief visual encounters with real or simulated natural settings can elicit significant psycho-physiologic restoration within as little as 3 – 5 min. This restoration is manifested as reduced negative effects, and heightened positive effects and changes in physiologic systems that are indicative of reduced arousal or stress mobilization. Accordingly, Sherman et al. focused on the activities of the users in the hospital, and found that 66% of staff garden usage was in the form of “walk-throughs” from one place to another. Although this activity does not fully exploit the gardens to their full capacity, research such as Kaplan’s on micro-restorative experiences suggests that even these brief encounters may enhance staff’s well-being and job satisfaction, both of which are predictors of patient healthcare satisfaction. Furthermore, Douglas and Douglas investigated patients’ perceptions based on qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The results from a questionnaire survey provide suggestions for radical improvements, and found a sustainable health care environment to be supported of the patients’ health and recovery. A number of studies have discussed the relationship between mental stress and the healing effect of the natural and urban environment.

One study supports the view that the hospital environment is stressful because it is considered to be complex and not friendly. The authors believe that continuous exposure to such an environment leads to mental  exhaustion. In such cases, they recommend exposure to a less complex natural environment, which would enable them to rest, develop companionship and burden them with a smaller amount of information. Humans have a natural tendency to prefer the natural landscape rather than the built-up environment, particularly when the latter presents an absolute lack of vegetation and water. Many people who are under stress seek solace in the natural environment, which they believe could make them feel better. Cooper-Marcus and Barnes evaluated four hospital gardens in the US with the use of observations and interviews of patients, visitors and staff. Their findings showed that from those interviewed 95% experienced a positive change of mood in the garden. During an investigation conducted by Cooper-Marcus, a sample of students in California was asked to describe where they go when they wish to escape from a stressful situation. The majority  answered that they go outdoors to a natural or designed environment. Ulrich, of the University of Texas, found that patients’ views towards natural settings are associated with shorter hospital stays. Examining medical records, he found that patients who viewed trees during their recovery period needed fewer strong painkillers and their recovery was quicker compared with patients who had a view of a wall. Furthermore, patients who were able to view trees more frequently received positive written comments from staff about their condition in their medical records . Those patients with views of a wall, however, had far more negative evaluative comments . The hospital staff can also benefit from it by having access to windows that make it possible to view garden spaces. Indirect proof of the aforementioned is the satisfaction that patients and staff express when they find themselves in a natural environment, compared with being inside the hospital building.This research was carried out using a method referred as ‘stratified sampling’. The total population was divided into homogeneous, non-overlapping sub-population groups, called ‘strata’. This stratified sampling method is indicated for similar research, because it presents smaller losses in the evaluation of the various parameters compared with the ‘simple random sampling’ method. People were divided into four strata on the basis of their specialty in the hospital. The strata were as follows: stratum Α: doctors; stratum Β: nurses; stratum C: administrative Staff; stratum D: medical students. Responders were selected to provide diversity both in terms of their length of experience and the type of specialty area across the major clinical divisions of the hospital. Thus, the researchers sought to interview a variety of responders comprising the young and middle-aged as well as males and females.EU Habitats Directive 92/43 identified the species of European Community  interest whose conservation requires strict protection .

Preservation, protection and improvement of the quality of the environment, including the conservation of natural habitats and flora, represent a fundamental general interest objective of the EC. Conservation of endemic species requires a thorough knowledge of their biological and morphological features in order to define an appropriate strategy. The case study presented herein highlights how conventional strategies of propagation, such as the germination of seeds, do not prove to be efficient without the use of germplasm ex-situ conservation techniques. Androsace mathildae Levier is a glacial relict present on a few stations in the Gran Sasso and Majella Mountains, so it is classified as a rare plant according to the Red List of Plants of Italy, it is further included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention, in Annex II and IV of Habitats Directive 92/43 CEE and it is protected under Regional Law n. 45/79 of the Abruzzo Italian Region. A noteworthy aspect in plant survival at high altitude relates to the snow cover, that determines the distribution of plant species in the alpine zone. The snow cover has protective effects for the plants, consisting in the prevention of exposure to low temperatures, winter desiccation, ice blast and solar radiation . However, prolonged life under the snow requires resistance to physico-chemical stresses and snowbed pathogens. In particular, the snow cover affects the phenorhythm of the plants, which need to have sufficient carbon reserves to overcome the prolonged winter and for clonal or reproductive propagation. Vegetative shoot apices and leaf meristems in most alpine plants are buried several centimeters below the ground and thus are not exposed to low and high temperature extremes. The snow cover and the paucity of humus present in the cracks where Androsace mathildae lives cause water stress due to reduced water availability. Alpine plants acquire water and mineral resources from substrates which differ in many respects from those common at lower altitudes. The grain size distribution found in alpine soil depends strongly on parent material. By avoiding nucleation, a process called supercooling allows leaf and stem tissues to cool below freezing point without freezing. This process is favored by compartmentalization of plant water into cells and vessels, by cell wall impregnation with lignin and by the absence of particles which could initiate the crystallization process. The high capacity of clonal propagation in these high altitude species is due to the adjustments that the plants have developed to protect themselves from frost. In fact, strawberry gutter system the late frosts at high altitudes endanger the blooms and thus the possibility of sexual reproduction. The compression of live zone and the small scale patterns of life conditions in steep alpine terrain represent natural experiments which provide unbeaten opportunities to study the plant adaptation and the mechanisms for survival of physical stress conditions.

The potentially most climate change-susceptible taxa are those of mountain peaks, with limited distribution areas, such as rare or endemic species. The alpine flora is at risk of extinction in the European mountains, especially where there is no possibility of moving to a higher altitude . Species occurring in isolated populations at the highest peaks of the Apennines, such as A. mathildae, are also at risk. For conservation purposes, the plant is currently maintained as a small number of individuals in the flower beds in the Alpine Botanical Garden of Campo Imperatore. This garden is located in the Gran Sasso massif, within the “Gran Sasso e Montidella Laga” National Park, at 2117 m asl; thus its peculiar location makes it ideal for in situ conservation of Central Appennine high altitude species. The living plant collections and, increasingly, seed banks and cryopreserved tissue cultures maintained by botanic gardens, form a significant ex situ reservoir of endangered plants. Today several botanical gardens use in vitro techniques in germplasm conservation, and long-term storage of material in culture for potential applications of cryopreservation. Androsace mathildae can be found in the cracks of limestone at an altitude between 2500 and 2900 m asl. Its discovery dates back to 1875 and it is ascribed to the Swiss naturalist E. Levier while he was hiking on the Gran Sasso Mountain. He dedicated the plant to his wife Mathilde, since she saw it first, and he performed the early studies on its iconography and botanical characteristics. The genus Androsace L.,  comprises about 150 species distributed in extra-tropical mountain ranges of the Northern hemisphere. They are particularly common in the temperate-cold regions of the Arctic and in Asia, North America and Europe. A. mathildae, a European member of Aretia, is a nano-chamaephyte present in the higher peaks of the Central Appennines; it is a perennial cushion plant, up to 3 cm high, with single rosettes or forming a cushion with a diameter no larger than 3 – 5 cm. The leaves are basal, lanceolate, shiny green and glabrous except for a few hairs at the leaf tips. The flowers are axillary, single, and the pedicel is often curved when fruiting. The calyx is green, with a stellate pubescence, and the corolla has white petals with a yellow eye. The fruit ripens in late summer and contains from three to seven seeds , which upon falling end up inside the leaves of the basal rosette or slightly away from it; the flowering time occurs in June-July. Until recently, it was believed that Androsace mathildae was also present in the mountains of the Balkan peninsula.

In the individual development of each individual, its genetic program is embodied. Ontogenetic or age-related changes include all aspects of development: metabolic processes, organogenesis, reproduction, aging or rejuvenation.Comprehensive land improvement in the whole region can effectively protect cultivated land resources, realize centralized contiguous cultivated land, and thus carry out large-scale management of rural cultivated land, accelerate the pace of agricultural modernization, improve rural ecological environment, and promote the development and construction of green villages in China, which plays a vital role in the coordinated development of urban and rural areas in China. The remediation of inefficient garden land and defective forest land is one of the important remediation types in the comprehensive land remediation of the whole region, the research on the remediation potential of inefficient garden land and defective forest land can effectively broaden the ways of supplementing cultivated land, provide strong support for solving the problem of balance between occupation and compensation of cultivated land , and have extremely important significance for promoting the scientific development of land resources in China and improving the use value of land resources. At present, there are many researches on the analysis of land remediation potential , for example, Li Quanbao  discussed the key problems and suggestions in the development of garden land and defective forest land as new cultivated land sources on the basis of exploring the development practice of garden land and defective forest land , Jiang Changsheng  explored some methods about the development of remediation potential of garden land and defective forest land, which provided methodological guidance for the analysis of remediation potential of inefficient garden land and defective forest land .

Li Quanbao  focused on the problems encountered in the actual development of garden land and defective forest land, while Jiang Changsheng  only studied the technical methods needed for the development of garden land and defective forest land. Neither scholar discussed the problems and methods together. In this paper, analytic hierarchy process is used to analyze the remediation potential of inefficient garden land and defective forest land in Zhemu Town, not only the technical methods but also the remediation potential were studied, nft growing system it is suggested that the local people’s government can make reasonable arrangements for the land remediation project in Zhemu Town with reference to the analysis results and the wishes of the villagers, so as to contribute to improving the income of the villagers in Zhemu Town, promoting the coordinated development of economy, society and ecology in the project area, and realizing the rural revitalization strategy in China.It is not only necessary but also urgent to renovate inefficient orchards. By selecting suitable crops and improving planting methods according to local conditions, the output of orchards can be effectively improved, and it is also conducive to improving the living standards and happiness of local villagers. Using ArcGis10.3 analysis and calculation, the total area of remediation area of low-efficiency garden in Zhemu Town is 785.62 hectares, of which the first-class potential area covers an area of 394.19 hectares, accounting for 50.17% of the total area of remediation area of low-efficiency garden; The secondary potential area covers an area of 305.65 hectares, accounting for 38.91%; the third-level potential area covers an area of 61.84 hectares, accounting for 7.87%; the fourth-level potential area covers an area of 23.94 hectares, accounting for 3.05%. The remediation potential of low-efficiency garden in Zhemu Town is mainly the first-class potential area and the second-class potential area, while the third-class potential area and the fourth-class potential area are small .

From the potential distribution map of inefficient garden in Zhemu Town , it can be seen that the primary and secondary potential areas of remediation potential in Zhemu Town are concentrated, mainly distributed in the central and western parts of Zhemu Town and the southeast, and sporadically distributed in the northern region; the third and fourth potential areas are mainly distributed in the south of Zhemu Town and a few in the southeast. The reason for this situation is that the Lijiang River passes through the north of Zhemu Town, the Xiangsi River, a tributary of the Lijiang River, flows through the central and western parts of Zhemu Town from northeast to southwest, and there is Baizhujing Reservoir in the southeast, which makes the water resources in the north, central and western parts of Zhemu Town abundant; moreover, the farmland infrastructure in the central and western parts of Zhemu Town is relatively perfect and the traffic conditions are good, and the slope in the central and western parts of Zhemu Town is relatively low, which makes the inefficient garden remediation potential in the central and western parts of Zhemu Town great; because the distribution of inefficient gardens in northern China is less, the first and second potential areas are only sporadic; the steep slope in the middle and east of Zhemu Town makes the renovation potential of inefficient garden in the middle and east of Zhemu Town small. It is suggested that the government of Zhemu Town can refer to the research results and combine the wishes of local villagers to scientifically arrange inefficient garden remediation projects, and should focus on remediation of inefficient gardens in the central, western and southeastern regions of Zhemu Town.Defective forest land refers to forest land which is destroyed by natural or human intervention, with low coverage rate, low economic value and low ecological value. The development and remediation of defective forest land will effectively improve the quality of local cultivated land, enhance the economic value of land, increase the income of villagers, and maintain and adjust the local ecological environment. According to the analysis and calculation of ArcGis10.3, the total area of remediation area of residual forest land in Zhemu Town is 1002.94 hectares, of which the first-class potential area covers 554.27 hectares, accounting for 55.27% of the total area of remediation area of residual forest land; the secondary potential area covers an area of 289.65 hectares, accounting for 28.88%; The third-level potential area covers an area of 54.88 hectares, accounting for 5.47%; the fourthlevel potential area covers an area of 104.14 hectares, accounting for 10.38%.

The largest potential area of low-efficiency garden remediation in Zhemu Town is the first-class potential area, followed by the second-class potential area, the fourth-class potential area again, and the third-class potential area is the smallest . From the potential distribution map of defective forest land in Zhemu Town , it can be seen that the primary and secondary potential areas of remediation potential in Zhemu Town are concentrated, mainly distributed in the northern, central and western regions of Zhemu Town and the southeast region; the third-level potential areas are scattered in Zhemu Town, while the fourth-level potential areas are mainly distributed in the south and southeast border areas of Zhemu Town. The reason for this situation is that the Lijiang River passes through the north of Zhemu Town, Xiangsi River, a tributary of Lijiang River, flows through the central and western parts of Zhemu Town from northeast to southwest, there is Baizhujing Reservoir in the southeast, which makes the water resources in the north, midwest and southeast of Zhemu Town abundant. In addition, in the north, vertical hydroponic nft system central and western regions of Zhemu Town, the farmland infrastructure is relatively perfect, the traffic accessibility is good, the slope in the central and western regions is relatively low, and the distribution of residual forests in the northern region is relatively concentrated, which makes the first-class potential area in the north of Zhemu Town the widest distribution and the greatest remediation potential, followed by the central and western regions and the southeast region; the southern and central eastern parts of Zhemu Town have a large slope and high terrain, which makes the remediation potential of the defective forest land in the central and eastern parts of Zhemu Town small. In the southeast boundary of Zhemu Town, it is mainly a four-level potential area with small remediation potential due to its far distance from the water source and large slope. It is suggested that the government of Zhemu Town can refer to the research results and combine the wishes of local villagers to scientifically arrange the remediation projects of defective forest land, and should focus on the remediation of defective forest land in the north, central and western regions of Zhemu Town, especially the defective forest land concentrated in the north.This is because climate is multivariate and ecological transitions and transformations are all related to climate. However, the rapid change in the global climate may cause unprecedented disruption of the biological processes. One of the implications of a novel shift in the climate system is that species may currently or in the future be relegated to climates that are sub-optimal for growth and survival. Also, shrinkage in the coverage of the boreal forest and extinction of some important members of the forest is anticipated. Boreal forest is an important component of the global carbon sink system that is sensitive to temperature. There are predictions concerning the migratory pattern of trees in response to climate change. However, some of the predictions were made from coarse scale observations which may not take into consideration the intraspecific genetic responses. Some tree species comprises of populations that are physiologically attuned to different climates. In addition, there are factors  other than climate that may influence the migratory pattern of a species. It is therefore important to assess trees’ responses at individual species level. One proposed strategy to offsetting potentially negative impacts of climate change on forest systems is to match genotypes with the future climates. This idea is based on the provenance trials traditionally used to introduce seed sources to a new climate.

The provenance trials have been combined with a statistical model  to predict species response to climate change . The underlying hypothesis for the model is that geographic variables are surrogate for elusive climate that governs micro-evolution and adaptation at local scale. However, the resulting predictions are often complex. In addition, implementing this approach requires a long-term provenance study and populations are necessarily planted in multiple sites. With the bourgeoning availability of climate data, climate-transfer function was developed to estimate the climatic distance to which populations may be transferred. It is based on the view that organismal distributions are primarily controlled by climate with other factors being secondary. Its advantage is that populations may not necessarily be planted in more than one site to generate a reliable result. This approach has been popularly used to assess species level response to climate change. In this paper, we present preliminary data of a study where we used transfer functions to assess the transferability of 25 populations of white birch to a test site in Northern Ontario. White birch  is a widely distributed species in North America and the most prevalent of all the birches. It is an ecologically important hardwood species in the Canadian boreal forest. There is a rising commercial interest in its products and its inclusion in hardwood-conifer stand management. Although there is an increased silvicultural knowledge base for the species, information about local populations, transfer potentials and climatic guidelines for its transfer in order to take advantage of its genetic diversity is still limited. Previous studies have reported variations in climatic response between seed sources from its southern and northern limits. The northern seed sources appear to germinate at low temperatures compared with the southern sources. Such variation has been reported for some other temperate species but caution is sounded against any generalization without first testing the seed sources in a uniform environment . So far, no such testing exists for white birch. Although one seed source testing of white birch was done, the sources used in the study and the test sites were only restricted to the interior of British Columbia. The objective of this study was to investigate how variations in seed source determine the success of white birch in the field and to understand the underlying climatic factors that may influence the transfer potential of the species. In this study we were able to directly relate the influence of the seed sources to the outcomes of the transfer functions.What is striking in this study is the direct relationships between the greenhouse growth performances and the first year field data, especially the correlation between the initial height and survival. Indeed, seedling growth investment guarantees survival and it may also be a requisite for resource acquisition and resource balance of seedlings.

The metrological data show that the average maximum and minimum temperatures are 30˚C and 19˚C respectively. June, July and August are the warmest months  while January, February and December are the coldest months . It should be mentioned, however, that about 10 days a year the temperature is equal or below 0˚C. As far as the humidity of the area is concerned, it is considered a humid area  where the humidity reaches its maximum in winter  and the minimum in summer  with a mean value of 40% – 45%. The total annual radiation reaches 525 milliwatt/hour where it reaches its maximum in June and July and its minimum in December and January. Eight to nine hours is the sunshine duration as an average during the day, this is equivalent to 69% – 74%. In summer sunshine duration reaches 80% – 90% while in winter it does not exceed 70%. The prevailing wind direction is northwesterly and westerly. During spring, a south-easterly wind present refereed to as “khansin”. This wind comes from Saudi Arabia and usually brings sand storms. Mean annual wind velocities are ranging from 3.6 to 5.7 m/sec with the highest mean monthly wind velocities taking place in the period June to August. Potential evapotranspiration  map  shows that the rate is higher in the south relative to the north. The average annual ETo is higher than 2000 mm. ETo reaches its maximum values from May to September and its minimum during January. During summer, 50% of ETo annual amount occurs while it is 22% – 23% during spring and autumn, and it reaches its minimum  during winter. The average annual day with fog is 27 days, and the maximum number of fog days occurs in December and January. As far as thunderstorms are concerned, its mean annual number of days is 7 usually occurring during the period October to May. The average annual dust days are of the range 36 – 53 days, and they usually occur from April to August with the peak in June and July. The western parts suffer more than other parts from the dust storms.The marshland is located in a very flat area. It rises gently toward the southwestern plateau with an elevation of 940 m and from the northeast toward Zagros Mountains, which reaches 3000 m. The area is featureless and very plain.

The widest portion is about 200 km while the narrowest portion is about 45 km near Basrah . There are some areas, which are below sea level. Within the area, the Tigris and Euphrates separate in many sub branches,grow table hydroponic which disappear in the large marshland that occupies 15,000 – 20,000 square kilometers depending on the availability of water. The main marches in the area are Hammar, Huwaeizah and Qurnah or Central marches .This marsh is located south of the Euphrates River and extends from Nasiriyah in the west to the outskirts of Basrah on Shatt Al-Arab in the east. Toward the south, saline lakes and sand dune belt of the Southern Desert border it. It occupies and area of 2800 square kilometers as a permanent lake before the 1970’s which is about 120 km long and 25 km wide. During the flood, it can extend to 4500 square kilometers. The maximum water depth in this marsh is within a range of 1.8 to 3 m. During summer; parts of the wet area dry along its shoreline and banks, and islands emerge. These islands are usually used for agricultural purposes. The main source of water is by flooding and tributaries of the Euphrates River. Another source is the overflowing from the Qurnah Marsh, also nourished the Al Hammar Marsh. Groundwater recharge was another source of replenishment.These marshes lie between the Tigris River to the east and the Euphrates River to the south; the area is roughly delimited by a triangle between Nasiriyah, Qalat Saleh and Qurnah. During seventies of last century, the Qurnah Marshes covered an area of about 3000 square kilometers bounded by the Tigris River east and the Euphrates River from the south. These marshes receive water from Tigris’s distributaries, namely the Shatt al-Muminah and Majar al-Kabir south of Amarah. The water depth in some areas reaches 3 m. The area consists of reed beds and several permanent lakes including, Umm al Binni Lake. The Al-Zikri and Hawr Umm Al-Binni lakes are two of the notable lakes and are 3 m deep.This marsh area is partly located to the east of the Tigris River and some parts in Iran, which is referred to as Hawr Al-Azim. The source of water is by the Karkheh River from Iran, while from Iraq, the Tigris distributaries Al-Musharrah and Al-Kahla supply the marsh. This marsh covers an area of about 3000 square kilometers, and it is 80 km wide at the north and 30 km from the south. The southern part is usually seasonal while the central and northern parts are permanent having 6 m depth of water in some parts. This marsh is characterized by moderately dense vegetation that can be found in the permanent areas. Hydraulic structure built during the 20th century; construction of major hydraulic works played an essential role in controlling the floods. Al-Hindiya Barrage was inaugurated in 1913 on the Euphrates River while Al-Kut Barrage was constructed in 1938, which directed more water flow towards the Gharraf River to supply irrigation for field agriculture, thereby decreasing the amount of water flowing from the Tigris into the Qurnah  and Huweizah marshes.

All these factors reduced the flow of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. Furthermore, many oil fields were discovered within the area that meant drying 1000 square kilometers of the marshes.After the 1990s, the Iraqi Government started to drain the marshes for military and security reasons and 63% of the marshes disappeared in 1992 compared to 1985. To enable the army to move inside the marshes, the central government started to execute five major drainage projects to prevent water from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers from reaching the marches that were constructed to drain the marshes are discussed in details by. Later, the army launched a major attack against marsh dwellers using artillery, mortar and ground attacks. Two third of the marshes were not receiving water inputs in 1993 and in 2000 less than 10% remained. The population of marsh’s dwellers before 1990 was about 500,000 and due to the military activities’ 120,000 marsh dwellers left to Iran. Later, in 1997, 192,000 marsh dwellers were still living southern Iraq, and 200,000 remained in all Iraq. Some local dwellers turned to farming to survive. This caused a number of negative environmental implications. One of the implications is poor water quality. It should be mentioned, however, that the area was highly contaminated by army munitions and poison gas. Later, after 2003, people living near the marshes started to break down the diversions’ structures to let water entering the marsh lands. The Iraqi Government and the International community started to restore the marshes. Vegetation and wetland increased by 58% and the marshland was covering an area of 44,950 square kilometers in 2008. Then, the area was reduced to 3420 square kilometers in April 2009 and to 2313 square kilometers in July 2009. The area increase and decrease variations are due to water availability and shortages. For this reason, this phenomenon continued with time .The volume of water required to restore 75% of the marshes is about 13 BCM. To find out this; we have to look at the whole water availability in Iraq. Water resources in Iraq mainly depend on the volume of water of the Tigris and Euphrates and their tributaries that enter in Iraq from other riparian countries.The two rivers rise in Turkey while some of the tributaries of the Tigris rise in Iran. Any activity within Turkey and Iran affects the quantity and quality of the water entering Iraq. Long-term average quantity of water entering Iraq from main Tigris and its tributaries are about 21.2 and 24.78 BCM while the Euphrates long average annual flow that is received by Iraq is about 30 BCM. Since the 1970s, the flow of the two rivers and their tributaries started to decrease. The flow of the Tigris River and its tributaries at Baghdad was 1207 cumecs for the period 1931-1960 and it dropped to 927 and 522 cumecs for the periods 1961-2000 and after the year 2000 respectively. The average annual flow of the Euphrates started to decrease from 30 BCM to about 4.4 BCM. This decrease of the flow of the rivers is due to the projects executed in Turkey, Iran and Syria and climate change.Turkey, Iran and Syria started to build dams in the upper parts of the catchment .

Turkey started to execute what is known as the GAP project. This project involves 22 dams and 19 power generation plants. Iran blocked the Karoon River which supplies about 50% of the flow of Shat Al-Arab River. In addition, other dams were constructed and all the valleys entering Iraq from Iran were diverted. Syria constructed 4 dams  only, and this is due to the security situation in that country. All these projects caused a decrease in the flow of the rivers and decrease in the water quality of the river too. Furthermore, climate change also affected the flow of the two rivers. All research carried out concerning the Middle East indicates that this area is suffering more than other areas in the world due to climate change, and this caused decrease of precipitation and increase of the temperature. Prediction models indicate that there will be 15% – 25% reduction in precipitation, and that will cause a reduction of surface water flow about 29% to 73%. This situation will cause grave depletion of groundwater resources. Water scarcity will affect agriculture, municipal water supply, sanitation industry and life quality. It is expected that Iraq will suffer from water shortages where it will reach −20.6 BCM in 2040.In addition, in case the situation remains as it is, all future predictions suggest that all riparian countries will be under water shortage stress. Bilateral talks and/or agreements are not sufficient to begin discussions for a regional solution. Therefore, such negotiations and discussions require a third party to intervene to bring all riparian countries together. To reach a final solution and sign an agreement between riparian countries this requires an external mediator that can highlight and frame the issues in such a way that each country believes that it is gaining by joining the discussion and will lose something by avoiding the discussions. The third party  should be influential on the international political level,grow table has the capability of financial support and has high technical skills that can be used. In such a case, all parties will be seriously involved in the discussions. Furthermore, it is believed that such negotiations between Iraq and others should include commercial, agricultural, industrial, military and security, trade and water. This is because Turkey is the dominant regional power and will not take the discussion seriously unless there are incentives. In this context, it is believed that if this plan is put into practice, the water can be made available to restore the marshes.Old age is a common phenomenon across the world and over time. It includes the proportion of older population aged sixty years and above. It is an emerging issue in Bangladesh. With the improvement in health care and increased life expectancy it is becoming a vital problem in Bangladesh. Over the last one decade, in Bangladesh the proportion of older population has been significantly increased. In Bangladesh, population ageing is viewed as a natural outcome of demographic transition from high fertility and mortality to low fertility and mortality due to the years of successful family planning  and public health programs that have changed the population growth of the country. The developed countries evolved policy instruments in the form of social security as well as care for the older people through institutions like old age homes, geriatric hospitals, old age recreation center and many other public and private care systems for the aged but in Bangladesh these facilities are not sufficient for older people specially for the tea garden older people. Bangladesh, as a developing country, has a long cultural tradition of looking after the older and families and communities are expected to take care of their own older members.

It has been reported that the priming of cotton seeds decreased mean germination and emergence time, thereby playing a key role in improving the measured parameters of the seedlings in laboratorial conditions and of the greenhouse-grown plants . Indeed, priming shortened this phase of plant life, helping them to exploit the environmental resources for the growth and salinity adaptation more quickly. Also in unstressed conditions, seed hydropriming can be a good strategy to improve initial growth of the cotton plants due to its inexpensiveness and availability in different conditions. However, in case of the salinity stress, priming with the appropriate dosages of potassium nitrate  can be a suitable method to make the cotton plants cv. “Sahel” and the resulting seedlings stress resistant. The salinity induced loss of plant growth may be caused by the disruption of the uptake of the nutrients, disturbance of ion balance or the loss of water potential in soil and osmotic stress, or may be caused by the variation of the availability of the enzymes effective on photosynthesizing system. Stem and root length are the main parameters to monitor the impact of environmental stresses, especially salinity and drought because root is in a direct contact with soil absorbing water and minerals and stem mobilizes them towards other parts. Therefore, the longitudinal variations of these two parameters  signal the plant responses to drought stress . The desirable impact of seed priming on germination percentage and rate has been reported by many studies. For example, Demir Kaya et al.  observed higher germination percentage and rate in sunflower seeds primed with potassium nitrate under salinity stress . Farooqh et al.  related germination improvement of two rice cultivars to priming with potassium chloride and calcium chloride . Germination rate has been reported to be improved by hydropriming in plants like corn and cotton . Some researchers suggest that higher water uptake in the primed seeds vs. unprimed seeds positively affected germination percentage and rate . Some studies have revealed the improvement of radicle and plumule length in primed seeds. It has been shown that seed priming with potassium nitrate increased radicle and plumule length of seedlings grown from the seeds of different plants under salinity conditions .

Kattimani et al.  reported higher seed vigor due to priming with nitrate solutions  and Artola et al.  noted the favorable impact of hydropriming on the seed vigor of Melilotus officinalis . Soleimani et al.  concluded that salinity reduced germination percentage and rate, plumule and radicle length, seedling fresh weight, and seed vigor . The species did not show similar responses to different pre-treatments, so that priming of Nigella sativa with potassium nitrate, distilled water, and potassium chloride improved germination and seedling features under salinity but priming with calcium chloride and sodium chloride did not have any positive effects.Anthropogenic disturbances from local communities securing their livelihoods and basic subsistence needs have continuously fragmented natural ecosystems . Due to their legitimacy, the dependency of local farming communities on natural resources will likely increase in the coming years without any suitable alternatives. The burden and the pressure of the surrounding populations on the forest resources arise from poverty and lack of appropriate management systems,mobile vertical grow tables such as those that use participatory methods. The efficiency of participatory management in other areas has been demonstrated for monitoring bush fires, agricultural production, green plant growth and combating forest degradation. Therefore, PA systems based on reductionist principles often become degraded through normal anthropogenic pressure, which could be remediated by providing appropriate solutions based on sustainable development models. The foundational principles of sustainable management encourage economic development without interrupting the capacity for future generations to enjoy the natural resources. African forests are mostly natural forest which supports the needs of the surrounding households, particularly the rural population . Protected areas benefit greatly from sustainable management programs for many activities like controlled burning and other restoration efforts that can improve the conditions of natural forests . However, there is a lack of systematic vegetation monitoring in African forests and protected areas directed towards understanding the social dynamics of the surrounding populations.

Studies that examine which social factors are associated with disproportionate utilization of natural forest products would be useful, for example, to address the potential natural resource ramifications of low education and household income. There is a pressing need to manage forests and green spaces through the implementation of specific management programs and programs structuring alternative livelihoods from the results of such social research. Protected areas are a globally recognized structure for natural resources conservation, and make effective contributions towards natural resource management and restoration . The total expanse of the protected area was estimated by UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre  at 21 million square kilometers, an area similar to that of the sum of the surfaces of three major countries, including India, Russia, and Afghanistan. The total area accounts for 12.9% of all continental land and 6.3% of the marine area. Initially, the purpose of protected areas  was purely subjective, without taking into account securing basic survival needs that populations extracted from natural resources. Then, socio-economic factors and ecosystem service provisions appeared as instruments of sustainable development. The overarching goal of the concept of the protected area is the protection of biodiversity. However, natural resources objectives encounter enormous difficulties in the local and national sphere for ensuring practical efficacy in simultaneously serving the population’s needs. Conflicts about protection mandates often arise between the local population and the policymakers -. Due to the regulations and application of management in the field, conflicts ensue where there is a lack of support for the interests of the local population who live at the expense of protected areas. Protected area establishment often drafts management objectives, without prior consultation with local populations  that prevent the use of the resources for the area on which they depend. Among several global PA, especially in Africa, conflicts arise from the imbalance between resource use and preservation of nature . The solution to this challenge is often to administer levels or zones of restriction to the access to the protected area  to balance the need for resource use and preservation of nature .

Other research has also shown that this challenge links to land ownership issues. The local communities do not always have the rights of landowners in certain countries. Furthermore, the state holds the land ownership and can apply PA management policies according to the needs of the government and their perceptions of the local population. In countries where local communities hold land ownership, the application of protected area management techniques inevitably depends on the collaboration between the PA agents and the social party . Zimbabwe and Kenya are among the countries that have successfully implemented community-based protected area management . Applications have been proven effective through sharing revenues earned among the communities.  showed that by enacting similar management techniques in Namibia then increased wild animal biodiversity and improved the tourism sector. In West Africa, especially in Sahelian countries such as Togo, there is a paucity of research attention on the topic of protected areas. Originally, traditional protected areas consisted of community-based management by sacred forest designations with no formal boundaries , which changed from periods during the colonization period and after the independence. Three-time periods can be historically distinguished related to protected areas in Togo. The first period includes the colonial and postcolonial periods characterized by the use of military force to protect natural resources. The second period extended from 1990 to the 21st century with less natural resource management and uncontrolled resource extraction due to socio-economic and political troubles during the democratization era. The third period, from 2000 to the present, sought the need to protect natural resources through strategies including establishing artificial visible or invisible boundaries. According to a survey conducted by the Ministry of Environment and Forest Resources of Togo,mobile vertical farm more than 80 protected areas established between 1938 and 1958 had the purpose of biodiversity preservation. However, they originated without collaboration with the residents. In the 1990s, after the democratization, different forms of human occupation  became the main cause of protected area degradation. Thus, due to conflicts and dismissal by residents of previous designations of protected areas in Togo, additional research is needed to address challenges hindering the successful implementation of natural resources protections going forward. There is no previous research focusing on assessment of the management plans, socio-economic dependence and anthropogenic activities of the surrounding population, or the preservation of the natural resources in the Protected Areas of Oti-Keran, Togodo, and Abdoulaye fauna reserve  in Togo. The current study aims to fill this gap by assessing the protected areas strategy in Togo under sustainable management models through the case study of Oti-Keran, Togodo, and Abdoulaye faunal reserve.Four eco-floristic areas divide Togo according to the vegetation type of each area. Two main regimes characterize the tropical climate type from the south to the north. Two types characterize the rainfall rhythm. In the northern areas, there is one rainy and one dry period. In the southern area, there are two rainy and two dry periods. There is an annual average temperature of around 27.8 degrees Celcius. The vegetation of Togo reported more than four thousand plant species and high species richness mainly from the forest species, as discovered by. Human activities threaten this rich flora by supplying basic needs for those who depend directly on forest resources for firewood energy and charcoal  and also for animal grazing and hunting. The selected research areas are among the ten top protected areas of Togo: Abdoulaye faunal reserve managed by an international NGO  and covers 30,000 hectares; Oti-Keran National Park decreased from 163,643 hectares to 69 hectares after being subjected to ongoing revision projects. Since 2002, Togodo National park revision projects resulted in a total decreased from 310,000 to 25,500 hectares, although dedicated to natural resources management.

In Togo, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry Resources  is in charge of the environment and natural resources management, including protected areas through the Department of Fauna and Hunting .At the national level, the socio-economic data was available from Indexmundi and UNEPWCMC  database . The national data included time-series GDP, rural area population, terrestrial protected areas, and agriculture area surfaces. Local-level data was obtained from secondary data from the field trips to assess the state of protected areas in Togo by interviewing local populations and doing surveys on the degree of degradation, vulnerability, and management of these protected areas. As part of this analysis, we randomly sampled the protected areas of Oti-Kéran, Togodo, and Abdoulaye national parks  for comparative analysis at the local level  during August 2019. We surveyed villagers living near the protected areas using questionnaires designed to obtain information related to the villager’s implications in the management systems of these protected areas and to determine needs supplied by the protected areas. These questions included the presence and the absence of certain particular plants and animals, the presence or absence of management agents, and the importance of the protected areas for the villagers. The villager’s national identity and phone numbers were notified and verified before engaging the questions. The interview captured at least 70% of the villagers of at least 18 years old per village across the adjacent villages around OTA national parks with a yes or no access to the protected areas questions giving a total of 210 interviews of villagers across the 9 adjacent villages.While terrestrial areas are showing an upward trend ), forest areas are decreasing alarmingly . Anthropogenic disturbances related to agricultural demands  and Figure 5 have risen to meet the food needs and extractive wood demands of the population .These populations are not only growing but also dominated by the younger generation. A large part of this country’s income comes from the agricultural sector, where the need to grow more food to feed this population effectively has been proportional to the increase of croplands and fallows. The degradation of forest lands and savannahs relates to the economic and financial survival of each household.

The reducing investments in the horticulture industry together with the challenges affecting the industry have continued to adversely affect horticultural production and export constraining its growth and contribution to the economy. According to , the area devoted to cut flowers and fresh vegetables in Zambia has stagnated at 140 hectares, compared to Kenya’s over a million hectares, because of high lending rates that prohibit most people from venturing into horticulture production. Furthermore, because the industry is largely export oriented, significant financial losses continue to be incurred by exporters each time the currency fluctuates upwards . According to , financial losses of about 30 percent of export value were incurred because of the appreciation of the Zambian Kwacha against the US Dollar and other major world currencies in 2005. Furthermore, tightening standards in the EU export destinations in recent years, mainly to control quantity of imports, have also served a major blow to the Zambian horticultural sector, especially among smallholder producers. For instance, it is argued that the cost of compliance to the European retailers’ private standards for Good Agricultural Practices  cut farmers’ incomes in half between 2002 and 2006 . As a result, less than 3 percent of the smallholder and commercial farmers involved in supplying foreign markets in 2000 were still doing so in 2006 .  reveals that a total of 22 horticultural farms that were involved in production in 2000 had ceased production by 2004 resulting in the loss of about 1440 and 82 hectares of vegetables and flowers, respectively. Empirical studies have identified two main sets of factors that explain the performance of agricultural exports in international trade. One set comprises factors that are external to the individual country, such as volume of growth of world primary commodity markets and producer prices or commodity terms of trade.

The other emphasizes variables that are internal to the country, including macroeconomic, production and demographic variables, and policies. Many researchers have studied the impact of domestic factors on agricultural exports. Most identify production, demographic, macroeconomic variables, and public investments in infrastructure as important factors. For instance, , using error correction models, found Nigeria’s agricultural exports to be positively influenced by domestic producer prices and negatively by population growth. These findings were consistent with  and .  also identified relative rainfall amounts, export credit, and improvement in road network as being directly correlated with agricultural exports. In a study in Egypt to determine factors that influence agricultural exports, , using the gravity model approach, found that agricultural exports increase with GDP. These findings are consistent with those by  who also found GDP to have a significant positive impact on volume and competitiveness of South Africa’s agricultural exports. While it has been argued that high interest rates attract domestic savings,dutch buckets studies have found high rates to discourage local investments by increasing the cost of capital . As a result,  argues that monetary policies should ensure appropriate interest rates that break the double-edge effect of interest rate on savers and local investors by both attracting savings mobilization and encouraging domestic investment. Other studies have assessed the impact of domestic exchange rates on export performance of the agricultural sector. These studies have however produced mixed results. Some show that performance of a country’s exports is highly dependent on its exchange rate regime, specifically the real exchange rate, while others do not. The majority of the studies that have observed the dependence of agricultural exports on domestic exchange rate show that the demand for a country’s exports increases when its export prices fall in relation to the world prices, that is, when the domestic currency depreciates against major world currencies . In contrast, an investigation of the impact of trade liberalization on export volumes by  in Uganda found no significant relationship between real exchange rate and volumes of exports. To investigate the factors that influence supply of Zambia’s flower exports to the three main export destinations—the UK, the Netherlands and Germany an error correction model  of flower exports, which incorporates both demand and supply factors, was used. Many authors have noted the increased importance of ECM and co-integration methods in analyses that attempt to describe long and short-run equilibrium relationships simultaneously . According to  and , an equilibrium relationship exists when variables in the model are co-integrated . A pre-condition for integration, however, is that the data for each variable involved exhibit similar statistical properties, that is, are integrated to the same order with evidence of some linear combination of the integrated series .

The order of integration ascertains the number of times a variable will be differenced to arrive at stationarity . A stationary series has a mean, variance, and auto-correlation that are constant over time . The inspection of the order of integration of variables allows the ECM estimation procedure to thoroughly examine the characteristic of time series, helping overcome the problem of spurious or meaningless regression results often associated with nonstationary historical data . According to  and , treating nonstationary series as if they were stationary produces biased OLS results, resulting in misleading economic analysis. The results demonstrate that Zambia’s flower exports are positively influenced by domestic production, GDP and population of importing countries, producer prices, export credit and exchange rate depreciation. For instance, the positive coefficients for real exchange of 0.1413, 0.0267 and 0.1052 indicates that a 1 percent increase in exchange rate  increased flower exports to Germany, the UK and the Netherlands by about 0.14, 0.03 and 0.11 percent, respectively. The regression results also show that increases in exports from competing countries, domestic cereal production and interest rates negatively influenced flower exports. The percentage decrease in the quantity of the flower exports to the three main destination countries attributed to a percentage increase in each of the three variables is indicated by the negative coefficient for the respective covariates . Lastly, the coefficients for the error correction term show that there was 98, 10, and 48 percent feedback in the estimated ECMs of flower exports to Germany, the UK and the Netherlands, respectively, from the previous year disequilibrium into the short-run dynamic process. The significant error correction terms in the models confirm the proposed relationship between flower exports to the three countries under study, and the variables considered in the models. Table 7 present results for the ECM which evaluated the impact of the covariates on competitiveness. The R2 of 0.7406 indicates that the estimated relationship explained 74.06 percent of the total variation in the competitiveness of flower exports. In addition, all diagnostic tests  show that there was no autocorrelation, the chief source of biasedness in time series analyses. Overall, the findings indicate that flower production, prices and exchange rate depreciation positively impacted while cereal production, export credit and interest rates negatively impacted competitiveness of flower exports. Following Monke and Pearson ,  a reduction in domestic resource cost  indicates an improvement in competitiveness. Finally, the significant coefficient of −0.0366 for the correction term implies that there was 3.7% feedback in the competitiveness adjustment model from the previous year disequilibrium into the short-run dynamic process. On the whole, our results in the two sets of models conform to both our prior expectations and findings by other empirical studies. The positive impact of domestic flower production on flower export supply and competitiveness is consistent with  suggesting, in part, that if interventions are to achieve increased flower exports; they should among other things, first increase domestic flower production. According to grow bucket, increasing farm production improves competitiveness and efficiency of the farm sector since fixed costs per unit output decrease as output increase due to economies of scale. Therefore, the decline of flower exports from 2006 onwards did not just result in reduced export revenues but equally resulted in high overhead costs causing a reduction in competitiveness. The positive effect of real GDP and population of importing countries on Zambia’s flower exports too conform to other studies which also found economic growth and population increase in foreign markets critical in stimulating a country’s agricultural export supply and competitiveness.

Explicitly, the result implies that economic and population growth in foreign markets increases demand for a country’s agricultural exports suggesting that the decline of the horticultural industry from 2006 onwards could be partly attributed to the poor performance of the global economy during the same period. Both  and  found GDP and population growth in importing countries to increase agricultural exports. In addition, conforming too to our findings,  found agricultural export credit to have significant positive influence on the volume of Cameroon’s agricultural exports while  and  found world producer prices to positively impact agricultural exports in Nigeria and South Africa, respectively. Drawing on this result, it could be equally deduced that the significant decline in investments to the industry following the bankruptcy of the largest horticultural firm, Agriflora, in 2004 largely contributed to the slump the industry continued to record thereafter. Besides, the result recognizes the fragility of the horticulture industry in the country suggesting the need for appropriate, broad-based policy support to ensure sustainability and growth of the industry. Conversely, most studies have consistently found a negative relationship between subsidized credit, like in our case, and agricultural competitiveness . Particularly, the negative relationship between subsidized credit and flower competitiveness seem to suggest that while the subsidized credit managed to increase output in the shortrun, it failed to sustain the high production recorded in the earlier years of the EU’s Export Development Project  due to resource constraints that followed after the project concluded. Similarly,  also found exports from competing countries to reduce Nigeria’s major agricultural exports implying that in addition to increasing production, the replacement of Zambia’s flower exports to the three principal countries by those from other countries dictate that there must be a quality improvement so the country’s exports can compete favorably with those from other countries. Furthermore, our results on interest and exchange rates in both export and competiveness models are comparable with those of . The authors also found high domestic interest rates and appreciation of the local currencies to reduce both volume and competitiveness of agricultural exports. The results therefore suggest that the significant appreciation of the Zambian currency during the late 2000s contributed substantially to the decline of the horticultural industry during the same time period. The observed negative impact on supply and competitiveness of flower export due to the appreciation of the local currency could be attributed to the loss of export revenue among exporting producers arising from the increase in value of the domestic currency relative to the major world currencies such as the US Dollar and Euro . The result could equally be attributed to the decline in competiveness in the international markets because of high export prices for commodities that arise following an increase in the relative value of a country’s currency . On the other hand, the negative impact of interest rates on exports and competitiveness is particularly attributed to the resultant high cost of capital, mainly credit, which makes it difficult for smallholders, especially resource poor ones, to adopt modern and yield enhancing technologies for increased agricultural exports . According to , the area devoted to cut flowers and fresh vegetables in Zambia has stagnated at 140 hectares, compared to Kenya’s over a million hectares, because of high lending rates  that prohibit most people from venturing into horticulture production.

Global Horticulture Market Outlook 2015 projects that horticulture industry plays vital role in the future. The globe has initiated measures to support this industry. In 2011, global fruits and vegetables production were 548 million tonnes and 990 million tonnes respectively. And the global floriculture industry size was around USD 109 billion . Globalization has witnessed the focus on integration of developing country firms geographically with PAN world with supply networks or commoditychains. These global supply chain linkages help to connect developing countries’ firms with developed countries’ suppliers and customers. Gereffi  , emphasises not only that independent companies in different countries are linked together in trading relationships, but also that the chain should be considered as a network governed to a large extent by key agents within it.

In Brazil, the amount of pesticides consumed doubled in the last 10 years, thus, in 2008 Brazil assumed the lead position in the world. In 2011, the country used over 852.8 million liters of pesticide . Its indiscriminate application in agriculture without the use of the necessary care has contributed to environmental degradation and increased occupational exposures making it a serious health problem in the country. According to the data of the National System of Toxic-Pharmacological Information  in 2010, there were 10,269 cases of pesticide poisoning in general, of which, 1,347 were caused by occupational circumstances. It is observed that there is a large underreporting of adverse effects, especially longterm, which can determine chronic diseases.Chronic exposures to these pesticides affect the auditory system at the central and peripheral levels, regardless of exposures concomitant to noise . Ototoxicity can be defined as the result of the action of certain chemicals that injure the anterior/posterior maze, leading to auditory loss with or without vertigo, nausea and gait instability, and should be studied and considered as a public health problem . The auditory loss caused by pesticides may occur insidiously or not and its severity will depend on factors such as the amount, the time of exposure and the interaction with the ototoxic agent. Usually this loss occurs symmetrically bilateral. The symptoms resulting in vestibular alterations are dizziness and vertigo, which may appear early and more intensely than the auditory . In Brazil there are few studies that report the association between exposure to pesticides and auditory alterations, but all authors concord with the relationship . Studies made a comparison between exposure to pesticides and noise with hearing loss, and most came to the conclusion that there is evidence that chemicals can lead to hearing loss regardless of the presence of noise . 

Minas Gerais is one of the largest producers of coffee in Brazil . Research conducted involving farmers in the state showed that most use organophosphates and pyrethoids . In the region of Caratinga, located in east Minas Gerais, studies indicate the use of more than 39 types of pesticides in tomato culture , being mostly the chemical class of organophosphates and pyrethroids  Piedade de Caratinga County, located in east Minas Gerais relies on agriculture as one of the main economic activities, coffee being the most anticipated,hydroponic gutter and in the dry season the coffee producers become olericulture . Because this region is predominantly agricultural with extensive use of pesticides, especially organophosphates and pyrethroids, both in cultivation of coffee and tomato, this study sought to evaluate the auditory health and risk factors in rural workers exposed to pesticides in Piedade de Caratinga County, MG, and chart their socioeconomic profile and lifestyle, while identifying the types of crops and the use and management of pesticides.First, This is a descriptive and exploratory research with quantitative and qualitative approach to the “basic purpose to develop, clarify and modify concepts and ideas for the design of further approaches” . The study was conducted from January to June 2013, in the rural area of the municipality of Piedade de Caratingalocated in east Minas Gerais, in the middle region Vale do Rio Doce, belonging to the micro-region of Caratinga—Minas Gerais. It has a land area of 42,5127.96 mi2, population of 7,110 inhabitants, altitude 874.89 yds., average temperature of 68˚F in winter and 84.2˚F in the summer. The topography is smooth and the street layout is in bottom of the valley. Coffee production is the main economic activity due to the altitude and mild climate. During the dry season of these products, the producers become olericultures, that follow to the municipalities in the region and Belo Horizonte . Rural workers, whose main activity is spraying pesticides in cultures and who attended the audiometric examination beyond the delivery of the questionnaire and explained signed informed consents, were selected. Exclusion criteria have the use of heavy machines that emit noises, changes in meatoscopy and age above 50 years. Thus, the final sample was selected as a matter of convenience and had 23 men, rural workers, who fulfilled the principle of inclusion and exclusion established. The absence of women in the study sample was not criterion of intentional exclusion of the authors of this research. But an absence of this kind was justified by the fact that, when determining the sample was intended to initially work with the number of rural workers who were representative for the population of these rural areas under study. However, when making contact with the owners of larger farms, they did not allow the development of the project.

We then decided to work with small farmers who were self-employed, and whose women did not participate in the work with the crop, and were responsible for animal care and the home. The audiometric tests were performed in acoustic cabins, using clinical audiometer BETA 6000 – Beta Medical, calibrated according to standard methods. The professional responsible for them was a properly qualified speech therapist and registered in its class organ. In testing the therapist had no prior knowledge of the type of previous exposure of each individual. The audiogram of each rural worker was issued under ASHA . A semi-structured interview was conducted using questionnaires adapted from the study of Kos , in which data were obtained on socioeconomic and lifestyle profile, types of crops, use and management of pesticidesauditory signs and clinical symptoms. The following information was considered: age, gender, education level, monthly income, smoking and alcohol consumption. In relation to the types of crops, the data of the use and management of pesticides was collected about working hours, daily working periods, type of cultivation, types of chemicals for agricultural use utilized, equipment used to apply the product, contact with pesticides, knowledge of the risks of pesticides to human health, guidance on the risks at work, type of information about these risks, training on first aid, packaging disposal and use of personal protective equipment , who conducted the training, use of PPE to handle the products, which PPE were used, if after the use of pesticides any specific hygiene routine was implemented and what they were. To understand the possible effects of the chronic use of pesticides on the health of rural workers, a questionnaire that consisted of questions concerning: incidence of poisoning by pesticides, tinnitus, dizziness presented during or after contact with pesticides and the presence of otorrhea and earache was used. The otoscopy was performed in all rural workers to check the integrity of the pinna and ears as to the existence of injury such as obstruction of the external auditory meatus, perforated eardrum and hearing of non-occupational origin. Those who submit any such changes would be excluded from research. Data was analyzed employing descriptive and inferential statistics. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 11.0. Quantitative variables were described by mean and standard deviation. The results were presented in tables. To determine the association between the qualitative variables in the study, we used the chi-square test. The significance level was 5%, where significant values of p ≤ 0.05 were considered. All received information related to the research and later signed the Consent and Informed Agreement  according to Resolution No. 196 of October 10, 1996 of the National Health Council , involving research on human subjects. The project was submitted to the Ethics Committee of Caratinga University Center where he received permission for the study was conducted.

In order to trace the socioeconomic profile and lifestyle sample in the study, the parameters whose results are in Table 1, hydroponic nft channel were considered. Define According to the data reported in Table 2, the study population was composed of individuals with a mean age of 36.7 ± 9.3 years, only for males. Regarding education, 69.6% attended elementary school from 1st to 5th grade; 21.7% reported having attended 6th to 9th grade and 8.7% attended high school. When asked about the monthly income, 60.9% said they receive a minimum wage per month; 21.7% receive less than the minimum wage; 17.4% receive between two and three monthly salaries. Considering aspects relative to the use and management of pesticides and in view of the working time in coffee and tomato plantations, 8.7% reported that they worked less than three years; 13.0% from 3.1 to 5 years; 8.7% 5.1 to 10 years; 26.1% from 10.1 to 15 years; 43.5% more than fifteen years . When asked about smoking habits, 30.4% said they smoke; 69.6% reported that they did not. In regards to consumption of alcohol, 52.8% said they consume alcohol; 47.8% do not consume alcohol. Regarding the daily working period, 8.7% work six hours a day; 56.5% eight hours; 17.4% ten o’clock; 8.7% twelve hours and other remaining 8.7% could not inform about the time spent at work . An important factor for the increased risk of exposure to pesticides refers to the use and handling of these products, Table 2 reported the findings relating to the variables that characterize this practice. As recorded in Table 2 and considering the type of existing agriculture in rural Piedade de Caratinga, it was found that 43.5% of the crops are tomatoes; 30.4% coffee; 13% culture both  and 47.8% other types of crops ranging from vegetables and fruits. Technical analysis about the type of agricultural defense used in coffee, tomato and other crop cultivation, there are a series of pesticides used, listed as follows: Roundup®  whose toxicological classification is III, Manzate®  toxicological class I, Vertimec®  belonging to class III, Meothrin®  followed by Tamaron®  with extremely toxic type I toxicology . For the application of these pesticides it is necessary to use their own equipment, these workers were asked about what equipment they used. The results of the answers are shown in Table 2, where it is possible to verify that 13% use the bar and hose sprayer for application in the crops; 69.6% manual knapsack sprayer; 13% use the mechanized knapsack sprayer; 26.1% use the stationary spray with motor and another 4.3% use of another form of application. Regarding the handling of pesticides, the question was asked about how contact with the product would be. 78.3% said that the only contact had with the pesticide would be when it is applied; 73.9% in the preparation of the solution; 52.2% during the cleaning of the equipment and utensils; 52.2% during transportation and storage; and 30.4% said that contact with pesticide is had when entering a crop soon after application . According to Table 2 in regards to the use of some kind of personal protective equipment  39.1% said they use; 39.1% said they did not use and 21.7% reported that they sometimes use it. When asked if they received any guidance on the risks that this type of work with pesticides could cause, 65.2% answered that yes, they received information about the risk inherent to this type of work and 34.8% reported that they received no guidance about the real risks of handling pesticides.Still about this same matter, workers were asked who passed these guidelines to them, 80% said that friends, family and other people guided them and 20% that neighbors were responsible for keeping them informed. Regarding first-aid training, disposal of pesticide containers and PPE, 21.7% said they received training and 78.3% did not . Regarding the use of PPE for the application of the product in crops, 43.5% said that they use protection adequately, 34.8% do not use PPE and 21.7% that they sometimes use it. Still related to this topic, they were asked about which PPE they used to avoid direct contact with pesticides, 69.6% said they use boots for prevention; 43.5% gloves; 39.1% hats; 26.1% impermeable clothing; 56.5% chemical masks and 8.7% reported using other forms of protection .

Considering the data in Table 2, in relation to the hygiene procedures soon after application of pesticides, 82.6% said that they performed a hygiene routine and 17.4% did not. When asked about what specific hygiene habits they adopted; 87% answered that they wash their hands and face every time they deal with a pesticide; 91.3% who take a complete bath after working with pesticides; 69.6% change clothes right after using these products and 65.2% said they avoid eating or smoking during the application of these products. The routine use of these harmful pesticides is harmful to health, it was asked if some of these workers showed some type of intoxication, 30.4% said they already showed signs of intoxication and 69.6% have never had such signs. The last question of this questionnaire, was about if soon after the application of pesticides, there was some sign or symptom relative to the use of these products; 21.7% said they felt dizzy; 26.1% had difficulty hearing; 21.7% lack balance; 30.4% nausea; 34.8% felt congestion in ear; 13% vomiting; 34.8% ringing in the ears; 8.7% tearing and ear pain; 21.7% no symptoms and 43.5% presented other types of signs and symptoms.

As one endproduct of the pathway has been elevated, it may well be that other related compounds, including the flavonols, are also found in higher concentrations. Roman lettuce is richer in lutein than head lettuces; and leafy and roman lettuces are richer in quercetin. The Cucurbitaceae family  is rich in vitamin C, carotenoids, and tocopherols. Burger et al. in a survey of 350 melon accessions from different horticultural groups of Cucurbita melo observed a 50-fold variation in ascorbic acid content, ranging from 0.7 mg to 35.3 mg/100g of fresh fruit weight. Ascorbic acid and β-carotene content ranged from 7.0 to 32.0 mg/100g and 4.7 to 62.2 μg/100g, respectively in sweet melons.Diet is the primary therapy for this type of diabetes and bitter gourd is particularly critical when pharmaceuticals are not available, as happens in a great part of the developing world. The Chenopodiaceae family  is an excellent source of folate and have been shown to inhibit DNA synthesis in proliferating human gastric adenocarcinoma cells. The Chenopodiaceae vegetables are also among the most oxalate dense vegetables. When oxalates become too concentrated in body fluids, they can crystallize and cause health problems such as kidney calcium oxalate stones. All the legumes , mature and imature seeds are good sources of dietary fiber and isoflavonoids. Mallillin et al. determined the total, soluble and insoluble fibre and fermentability characteristics of ten legumes mature seeds  and concluded that the dietary fibre content ranged from 20.9 to 46.9 g/100g and that the best sources after in vitro fermentation using human faecal inoculum stimulating conditions in the human collon  were pole sitao and mungbean , kidney bean and pigeon pea, , and peanut and cowpea . High-flavonol legumes include sugar snap peas and mange-tout, which were found to contain 98 and 145 µg quercetin/g respectively. Some legumes are also rich in iron. Trinidad et al. determined the mineral availability in vitro of iron, zinc and calcium in ten local legumes .

They found that the highest iron availability among legumes was for lima bean and mung bean while for zinc and calcium, the highest availability was for kidney beans and pigeon peas, respectively. Groundnuts have the lowest Fe , Zn and Ca availability. They concluded that mineral availability of Fe, Zn, and Ca from legumes differs and may be attributed to their mineral content, grow table hydroponic mineral-mineral interaction and from their phytic and tannic acid content. For example mungbean  either eaten as whole pod grains or grown to produce bean sprouts, is an important source of iron for women and children throughout South Asia. In this section we will highlight the health benefits of the most studied and consumed vegetables namely crucifer, allium and solanaceous vegetables. Cruciferous vegetables  which include, cabbage, brocolli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kales, kailan, chinese cabbage, turnip, rutabaga, radish, horseradish, rocket, watercress, mustards, among other vegetables, provide the richest sources of glucosenolates in the human diet. Most consumers associate cruciferous vegetable consumption with health. They have reasons for that because based on one of the largest and most detailed reviews of diet and cancer, the World Cancer Research Fund in USA concluded that a diet rich in crucifers is likely to protect humans against colon, rectum, and thyroid cancers, and when consumed with vegetables rich in other phytonutriceuticals, can protect against cancer in other organs. Crucifers rich in glucosenolates including broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and kale have been shown to protect against lung, prostate cancer, breast cancer, and chemically induced cancers. Epidemiological data show that a diet rich in crucifers can reduce the risk from several types of cancers and that the risk can be significantly reduced by an intake of at least 10 g per day. Epidemiological studies have suggested that diets rich in broccoli, may reduce the risk of prostate cancer, and consumption of one or more portions of broccoli per week can reduce the incidence and the progression from localized to aggressive forms of prostrate cancer. The overwhelming evidence concerning the anticarcinogenic effect of phytonutriceuticals in crucifers were from in vivo studies, mainly with broccoli, using animal models and human Volunteers.

In order to establish the relationship between whole broccoli and cancer prevention, Farnham et al. examined the diversity of induction of the phase II detoxification enzyme quinone reductase, in murine hepatoma cells, by 71 inbred and 5 hybrid lines of broccoli. They found that the rate of induction of quinone reductase in hepa 1c1c7 by the broccoli inbred lines ranged from 0 to 15,000 units and that the rate of induction was highly correlated  to the concentration of glucoraphanin in each broccoli inbred. These results suggest that there are significant differences in the health benefits among crucifers, which is important not only from a health point of view, but also as a marketing tool to promote a certain cultivar. Comparative studies of glucosenolate profiles indicate significant quantitative and quailtative differences among accessions within each crucifer, between plant parts, developmental stage, agronomic management, and climatic conditions. Kushad et al. observed in 65 cultivars of brocolli, that glucoraphanin was the major glucosinolate and that there was more than 27-fold difference between the highest concentration in cultivar “Brigadier” and the lowest concentration in cultivar “EV6-1”. Hansen et al. also observed in their study with 21 cultivars of red cabbage and 6 white cabbages, that there was a considerable variation in the concentration of the individual glucosenolates between the cultivars examined. Red cabbage cultivars were found to contain significantly higher concentrations of glucoraphanin compared to white cabbage cultivars. There were also significant differences within the red cabbage cultivars. Of the red cultivars examined “Rodima” had the highest concentration with 7.4 mg/g DW glucoraphanin whereas “Primero” has the lowest concentration containing only 0.6 mg/g DW. The white cabbage cultivars contained significantly higher levels of glucoiberin compared to red cultivars. The white cabbage cultivar “Bartolo” contained the highest level of 7.4 mg/g dry weight, whereas the cultivar “Candela” had the lowest level of 1.7 mg/g dry weight. The red cultivars ranged from approximately 3 mg/g dry weight to 0.3 mg/g dry weight. The red cabbages were also found to contain significantly higher concentration of gluconasturtiin compared to white cabbage cultivars. The cultivar “Amager Garo” had the highest concentration whereas “Primero” had the lowest, 1 and 0.1 mg/g dry weight, respectively. Similar differences were also observed in turnip and rutabagas. Fahey et al. evaluated glucosinolate content of broccoli sprouts and found that they contain nearly 20- to 50-fold higher glucosinolates than tissue from mature plants. In broccoli heads, the most significant glucosinolates are glucoraphanin, glucobrassicin, progoitrin, and gluconasturtiin. In cabbage, Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, kale, tronchuda and collard the predominant glucosinolates are sinigrin, progoitrin, and glucobrassicin.

In turnip and rutabagas, the predominant glucosenolates are glucoerucin, glucoraphanin, and glucobrassicin. In radish, the predominant glucosinolates are glucoerucin, glucoraphanin, and glucobrassicin. Each of these crucifers also contain smaller amounts of other glucosinolates. The bulk of the differences in the aliphatic glucosinolates is genetically regulated. Differences in the indol glucosinolates, in contrast to aliphatic glucosinolates, have been attributed to environmental factors. Even though the glucosinolate content is influenced by environmental conditions the effect of genotype is found to be greater than that of environ- mental factors. Crucifer vegetables are also rich in vitamins, with kale rated as the second highest among 22 vegetables tested. Brussels sprouts and broccoli were also ranked high in their vitamin content containing significant amounts of vitamins C and E, and β-carotene. Evaluation of α- and β-, α-, and γ-tocopherols, and vitamin C in broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, tronchuda, and kale, showed significant variations between and within these crucifers. Vitamin C is the most abundant vitamin in all five crucifers tested. Kale had the highest amount of these vitamins, followed by broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower. Analysis indicated that 79% of β-carotene, 82% of α-tocopherol, and 55% of vitamin C variability in broccoli were associated with genetic factors. Crucifers are also excellent source of folate. Brussels sprouts and broccoli were ranked among the highest vegetable sources for folate, contributing about 110 to 135 and 70 to 90 μg/100 g, respectively. Crucifers also contain significant amounts of dietary fiber. Dietary fiber content of cauliflower was estimated to be about 5% of the total fresh weight or about 50% of the total dry weight, consisting of about 40% nonstarch polysaccharides. Cellulose and lignin concentrations in Brussels sprouts were estimated to be 36% and 14.5%, while in cauliflower they were estimated to be about 16% and 13% of the total dry matter, respectively. There are plenty of crucifers  that are good sources of calcium. Galega kale contains a high content of protein, fiber, calcium, and sulfur when compared to broccoli,grow table the reference within Brassica vegetables. Crucifers are capable of accumulating substantial amounts of selenium when grown on high-selenium soil. Banuelos and Meek reported that broccoli grown on selenium enriched soil accumulated sevenfold more selenium than cabbage, collards and Swiss chard. Broccoli plants grown outdoors on a sphagnum, peatmoss, and vermiculite medium and fertilized with sodium-selenate and selenite accumulated 278 mg/g dry weight selenium, in the edible florets, compared to the nonfertilized control, which accumulated only 0.13 mg/g dry weight. In broccoli, selenium is stored as selenocysteine, which is readily absorved by human tissue. Selenium-enriched broccoli has been found to reduce colon cancer and mammary tumors in animal models. Cabbage sprouts and fully developed heads also accumulated selenium and the accumulation was higher in the sprouts than in the mature heads. Other antioxidants in crucifers include flavonoids. Miean and Mohamed examined the flavonoid content of 62 vegetables and found that broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, chinese cabbage, and kailan contained between 148 and 219 mg/kg of flavonoids. Broccoli contained myricetin, quercetin, and luteolin; cauliflower contained myricetin and quercetin; kailan contained quercetin and apigenin; while cabbage contained only myricetin. In a similar study, Hertog et al. evaluated the methanolextracted flavonoids from 28 vegetables and found that quercetin levels, in the edible part of most vegetables, were below 10 mg/kg, except in kale , broccoli , and onion . Kale, broccoli and turnip contained 211, 72, and 48 mg/kg of kaempferol, respectively.

Kaempferol had also been detected in cabbage leaves, but Miean and Moamed did not detect kaempferol in any of the tested crucifer vegetables. Alliums vegetables  include, garlic, onion, leek, chive, Welsh onion, among other vegetables. They are rich in a wide variety of thiosulfides, which have been linked to reducing various chronic diseases. Similar to glucosinolates in crucifers, the types and amounts of thiosulfides in alliums vary significantly. Typically, they contain 1% to 5% nonprotein sulfur compounds, on a dry weight basis. Kubec et al. reported significantly variability in the total thiosulfide  content and in the relative proportion of these compounds between and within alliums, even when grown under identical conditions. Theyfound that the total thiosulfide contents in green onion leaves, chive, and onion bulb were 0.2, 0.72, and 1.02 g/kg fresh weight, respectively. The type of thiosulphides in these vegetables were also variable. For example onion bulbs contained 34% methiin, 5% ethiin, 6% propiin, 5% alliin, and 49% isoalliin, while garlic cloves contained about 92% alliin, 8% methiin, and trace amounts of ethiin, propiin, and isoalliin. The second most important group of phytonutriceuticals in alliums are flavonoids. Two types of flavonoids are found in onion bulbs: anthocyanins in red onions and flavonols like quercetin and kaempferol in most yellow fresh cultivars. Miean and Mohamed reported that onion leaves had the highest total flavonoid content among 62 different vegetables they tested and that total flavonoid content of onion leaves and garlic were about 2.7 and 1.0 g/kg dry weight, respectively. In onion leaves, about 55% of the total flavonoids is quercetin, 31% kaempferol, and 14% luteolin. In onion bulb, more than 95% of the flavonoids is quercetin and only a trace amount of kaempferol. White onion cultivars were reported to have significantly less quercetin than the red ones and most of the quercetin is present in the outer scales. Red onions contained approximately 1350 µg/g fresh weight of total flavonols and white onions contained only 10 µg/g.

The overall gender profile of participants skewed towards male participants in both farm sizes and across the three commodities with only 25% and 38% female participants from mango and avocado farming systems respectively and no female macadamia farmers . Results indicated that a higher proportion  of all participants were from the age group 51 years and above. This profile was skewed towards small-scale farmers with only 21% of large-scale farmers in this dominant age group and 5.2% who were between 36 – 50 years old. Male farmers represent a larger percentage in this study compared to their female counterparts which is in line with the gender findings of other studies conducted in the Vhembe district and is attributed to cultural norms and values of the Vhenda people from the area. Age distribution results suggest an aging population of farmers within the two main farming systems in the Vhembe district possibly explained by youth having less interest in agricultural activities as they see it as older people’s occupation resultantly creating a disparity of farming knowledge and interest between youth and the elderly.Over half  of participants in the study described the topographic location of the farm as mountainous compared to 47% who said the land was flat. A small proportion  identified the land as being located in a valley. Macadamia farms were commonly located on mountainous locations while mango farms were located in either flat or partly flat locations or avocado farms in either partly flat or mountainous locations. More small-scale farmers  described the topography of the farm as mountainous compared to 15% of large-scale farmers across all commodities.A higher proportion of all participants described the soil as either sandy or loam, 11% described it as clay and a small proportion used other descriptions such as the soil classification name e.g., Hutton or “slippery”. With regard to soil colour, the most common colours identified were red and dark brown , participants also referred to greyish-white and other . Loamy, red soil was the dominant description amongst macadamia farmers. Mango farmers mostly described the soil as sandy and either red or dark-brown. Avocado farmers described the soil as sandy and red in colour.

Responses revealed that large and small-scale farmers made used of various services e.g., specialist soil analysis facilities, the local Department of Agriculture and the local agriculture college to periodically conduct detailed soil analyses.There was no correlation between soil type and average gross annual income and a positive but non-significant correlation between AGAI and soil colour . According to farming on steep slopes is a cause for concern because of the threat of gradual erosion and leaching of nutrients which will enhance land degradation therefore compromising the sustainability of the farming systems. The Vhembe district is made up of complex topography driven by its geomorphology,mobile vertical grow tables it is characterized by the Soutpansberg “Salt Pan Mountain”, which is predominantly quarzitic. Small-scale farmers who occupy mountainous areas in the Vhembe district are allocated this land by the local chief generally as a result of insufficient land in the valleys. The chiefs use their own discretion which is at times influenced by favouritism . Despite farming on steep slopes some of the farmers on this kind of land claim they are able to produce good quality produce which can be attributed to other land characteristics and management practices. Soil colour and soil type can indicate soil fertility. Soil fertility within a farm size can be used to measure production levels and therefore sustainability because it is a limiting factor of production. According to the land type surveys for the Vhembe district issued to the researcher by the ISCW for the period 1973-2004 , the broad description of the soil pattern found in the area is red, freely drained soils with low to intermediate base status. The dominant soil is Hutton  which is characterized as deep. The soil form description for Hutton according to the ISCW is red-brown to brown topsoil overlying freely drained, red apedal soil material. The soil series description is described as medium base status, clay loam to clay textured subsoil; high base status , clay loam to clay. Other soils that characterize the area in which the study falls  are: Streambeds, Valsrivier, Shortlands, Katspruit, Glenrosa. In terms of the commodities, all soils in the district are suitable for production of these crops. Macadamia nuts prefer well drained soils; as a result, most soil types can be regarded as suitable for macadamia production provided, they are well drained without restrictive layers in the top 1 m of the soil. According to Hutton soils are described as an optimal soil type suitable for mango cultivation both under irrigation and dry land cultivation. Avocados prefer deep soil which is well drained as a requirement. With regard to colour, indicate that only reddish-brown, red and dark-brown soils, particularly in the subsoil, are suitable for avocado growth. All of the above requirements match the characteristics of Hutton soil.Based on the coefficient of variation at the 3 weather stations over the 10 years  there was a distinct difference in the CV across the stations with Makwarela having the lowest CV  and a sharp increase to 45% and 50% at Mutale and Malamulele respectively. This showed that there is extremely high variability within the months between the years at Mutale and Malamulele while the rainfall at Makwarela was relatively more reliable. High variability in rainfall amount between years can limit growth. The total monthly rainfall distribution at all 3  indicates thatmost of the annual rainfall comes during the months of September to March. This can be generalized as the wet summer season. The peak rainfall is from December to January/February with rainfall declining significantly after April. Very little rainfall, if none at all, is received between May and August. This can be generalised as the dry, winter season.

The main source of water on farms was rivers , dams , boreholes  and tanks.The use of pipes was the most common form of irrigation identified amongst all participants in the study followed by rain-fed and jet irrigation.Pipes for water reticulation were commonly used by small-scale macadamia and avocado farmers compared to jet irrigation e.g., micro-jet and jet spray irrigation systems were commonly used by a few large-scale macadamia and avocado farmers. Farmers in the Vhembe district who irrigate get higher incomes from on-farm activities as opposed to dry-land farmers due to higher yields. Access to water for irrigation is considered a macro constraint for smallholder farmers in the Vhembe district according to. These farmers are often victims of water shortages and irrigation politics.Theft, of the crop, is the biggest threat, particularly for mango and avocado farmers . This is exacerbated in small-scale farms  due to the lack of fencing. The second most common threat across both small and large-scale farms is diseases and pests. Farmers referred to integrated pest management which they understand as a combination of multiple techniques to prevent pests or their damage as an approach to pest control.The data used to plot Figures 8-11 are presented in Table 3. Results of the Pearson Correlation analysis showed there was a weak positive and statistically significant correlation between farm size and yield amongst macadamia farmers, a strong negative correlation amongst mango farmers and strong negative correlation amongst avocado farmers. Yield results with respect to commodity and farm size reveal that farm size does not always correlate to high yields as can be seen amongst some large-scale mango and avocado farms. This suggests that farm size alone cannot guarantee a high yield and there is need to consider a broader range of aspects. Increases in yield per unit area will require more investment into issues of soil fertility management, soil and water conservation, pest and disease control and technology usage amongst others.The data used to plot Figure 12 are presented in Table 3. The average gross annual income from farming amongst participants ranged between R5000 and R40 million across the three commodities. Results revealed that macadamia farmers obtained the highest farming incomes, in both large-scale farms, average of R25,100,000, and small-scale, average of R120,000 compared to avocado, average of R20,075,000 amongst large-scale farmers and R22,500 amongst small-scale farmers, and mango, R20,000 for the large-scale farmer and an average of R57,333 amongst small-scale farmers, farmers.  Results of the Pearson Correlations analysis show that there is a positive statistically significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst macadamia farmers , a positive significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst mango farmers and a strong positive significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst avocado farmers.This discussion will relate the various results to each other and to the overall understanding of these results on the sustainability of the systems. The results showed that males were mostly responsible for the farming activities and this may have a negative impact on sustainability of the farming systems in the future because demographic statistics show that female numbers are growing more quickly than male numbers. The age of active farmers was mostly above 51.

According to in most rural smallholder communities in the Limpopo Province, the youth often leave the farm lands in the rural areas to seek employment in the towns; this may pose a threat to sustainability as there will not be enough farmers with suitable agricultural experience to continue the cultivation of HVCs in future. It is proposed by that secure land tenure is a necessary pre-condition for the adoption of long-term sustainability of farming practices which characterizes sustainable farming systems. Results of the study do not support this theory as the majority of the farmers farm on communal land. If there were significant changes in land tenure policy in the Vhembe district, this would make the area vulnerable in terms of sustainability of the farming systems for both farm sizes. This is highly plausible, in the future, as land reform remains a pressing and controversial issue in the South African political context. The agronomic conditions for crop cultivation are mostly suitable with respect to the inherent soil fertility, however, fertilizer inputs are low due to high prices. The three areas studied receive differing amounts of rainfall, two areas are in the 650 mm range and the other area receives about 1020 mm. However, the CV of annual amount is much larger in the areas with the lower amounts of rainfall making these areas more vulnerable which may result in non-sustainable production conditions. According to the adverse effects of climate change on agricultural productivity in South Africa are on the increase. These include rainfall decreases amongst others. Future decreases in rainfall will make farms that are completely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, such as the mango farmers in the study, vulnerable in terms of sustainability. The challenges of theft, pests and diseases pose a threat to production and sustainability of the farming systems as lower incomes from farming can be expected as a result of low yields. This will negatively impact on farmers’ ability to finance farm operations. Land is a finite resource that cannot be increased indefinitely. Efforts to increase yields therefore need to target changes in land management, which should incorporate a range of considerations such as training, the incorporation of organic farming practices such as those suggested by Dassou et al. , access to finance, mobile vertical farm the use of higher inputs and changed technologies. According to annual tree-crop income amongst smallholder farmers in the Vhembe district, although still very limited, constitutes the main agricultural income. In the few cases that there is additional income from non-tree crops, it is generated from a wide range of vegetable crops and contributes a very small share of agricultural income. The same author asserts that non-tree crops, mostly vegetables, are primarily responsible for the agricultural income and are perceived to be a short-term strategy for income generation whilst waiting for tree-crops to reach maturity. This serves as a sustainable farming practice that can facilitate sustainable farming systems for small-scale farmers. Macadamia nuts is the fastest growing tree crop industry in the country and their production is lucrative.