Black pepper is the most important one found in Berenike. Black peppers are either sun-dried or dried in special smoke rooms. Black pepper is very vulnerable to damage from mold and should be dried quickly and thoroughly. If peppercorns are stored in a dry environment, they may be kept for many years without losing their quality. Maybe it is for that reason that traders of Berenike chose to leave behind a large supply of black pepper safely stored in a buried dolium on the assumption that they would return within a few years.The group of fruits and nuts is well represented in the archaeobotanical record of Berenike, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The classification of raw food is mostly based on its use in food preparation, but its categorization is not unequivocal, as can be seen for food products classified as fruits and nuts. Some fruits, such as okra and tomatoes are even classified as vegetables. The matter is even more confused by the inclusion of seeds such as stone pine , pigeon pea , and chickpea within the group classified as nuts . From a biological point of view, nuts are a special group of fruits. A classification of fruits, nuts, and a single seed based on their anatomy and moisture content makes more sense with respect to their storage life and will serve here as a guideline. A group that is easily preserved concerns nut like seeds and nuts: stone pine , hazel , and sacred lotus . The first two were imported from the Mediterranean and the last one from the Nile Valley. Long-distance transport of these food products would not have been problematic as they can be stored for considerably long periods without spoilage. It is striking that very often seed coats of stone pine were found together with cone scales, drain trays for plants implying that they were transported as whole cones on a regular basis.
A reason for this might be that in this way all seeds could be transported, whereas after threshing some seeds would become damaged and unsuitable for transportation. It should be realized that import and consumption of seed contents only cannot be ruled out, but their possible share cannot be established as no traces are left. The baobab and the bentree have dry fruits that contain many seeds. Trading whole fruits of the baobab makes sense as both seeds and pulp are edible, and the indehiscent fruit does not easily shed its seeds. The fruit of the bentree is a three-valved capsule that bursts open when ripe. To prevent seed loss, it is believed that fruits were threshed to release the seeds. This kind of processing is still practiced by the Ma’aza bedouins living in the northern part of the Eastern Desert . No information on storage life is available, but it is assumed that both fruits can be stored for considerable periods. Most fruits found at Berenike are classified as drupes. This fruit type is characterized by one or more seeds enclosed by a fruit wall that consists of three different layers. A dichotomy between dry and fleshy drupes is based on the moisture content of the middle layer of the fruit: the mesocarp. The coconut , the almond , the walnut , and the fruit of the balsam tree are classified as dry fruits. Only the first three are edible, and it is the seed that is consumed. All three species are evidenced by their hard endocarps, indicating that these fruits were, at least partly, traded destoned. The presence of the hard endocarp is advantageous as it protects the seeds against decay and insects. The fibrous mesocarp of the coconut is highly valued as crude material for mats and ropes and explains the import of whole fruits to Berenike. The coconut was traded over long distances as whole fruits and maybe also as dried copra, although the presence of the latter could not be demonstrated. With or without the fibrous husks, coconuts can be kept until the liquid endosperm has completely transformed into solid “meat,” as is mentioned for example by Cosmas. For long-distance transport, fruits must therefore have been harvested in an unripe condition.
The drying process of coconuts depends on the temperature to which they are exposed, but will take at least several months. Although coconuts should be harvested at intervals of two months from a particular tree, in practice a yield of coconuts can be obtained from a coconut plantation every month. The logistics of transporting coconuts from India to Rome were, therefore, not problematic with respect to the short, fixed period during which Roman ships visited the Indian ports but may have been critical with respect to the duration of the voyages from Muziris to Rome, which would have taken some three months without any unforeseen delays. The fruits of the sugar date and doam palm are semisoft and take up a middle position in terms of preservation. The mesocarp of both species is sugary and edible. The archaeobotanical remains of both species indicate that they were transported as whole fruits. Although the seeds of both species also have an economic value, there is clear evidence for the latter species only that the seeds were extracted from the fruits. Both species are adapted to desert conditions and could be obtained from reasonable short distances. Hence their preservation might not have been problematic. It should be noticed, however, that fruits of the sugar date were partly infected by an insect that feeds on the seeds. Such infected fruits are still among the fruits offered for sale at markets today, which implies that the consumer does not discriminate in this case. Fruits having a soft mesocarp make up the largest part of those categorized as a drupe. The only fruit that could have been gathered from short distances, even from locally cultivated specimens, is nabq . Three other species originate from the Gebel Elba area or beyond: Cordia nevillii/sinensis, Grewia, and Cocculus pendulus. All others must have been brought from more-remote areas. Transported from the Mediterranean were the cherry plum , the domestic or bullace plum , the olive , the apricot , the peach , and the Egyptian plum . The last four species might also have been obtained from orchards in Egypt, for example in the Fayum. Finally, the soft fruits of the emblic had their origin in India. Although the high vitamin C content of emblic fruits has an antiscorbutic property and may have been transported in syrup, it is more likely that the dried fruits were traded.
Very perishable fruits are the apricot and the peach, ones that are only sweet and juicy if harvested in a ripe condition. Galen states that the juice and flesh of apricots rot easily and that these fruits are bad in general . He even advises against the consumption of these perishable fruits after other foods, as they will initiate rotting. A similar warning is given by Pliny , cited earlier. From his remark it can be concluded that fresh, sweet peaches were offered for sale, and people must have appreciated their sweet taste. The only way to transport such a fruit in an unspoiled condition is to add preservatives. Today, pickled peaches still consist of whole fruits that are peeled but not destoned. When apricots and peaches are dried, the stones can be removed. Dried apricots that are sold in Egypt today are available with or without stones. Those containing the stone are strongly dehydrated and have lost their characteristic color and are cheaper as a result. This kind of preservation also occurs quite easily under natural conditions after windfalls. Many well-preserved fruits can be collected under trees without any extra effort. The presence of a stone fragment in Berenike from a peach could be indicative of pickled fruit which must have been a rare item judging by the single fragment found so far. Considering the same fragment as a contamination in a load of dried peaches, it would leave open the possibility that they were available on a more regular scale. The apricots could originate from either pickled or dried specimens. The few remains indicate that the fruit probably was not commonly available. Plum stones, especially those of the cherry plum, are better represented in the archaeobotanical record of Berenike than peach and apricot and indicate that plums most probably were traded with their stones. Whole plums are easily dried but were also preserved in honey, as is mentioned by Apicius . The storage life of dried plums depends on the moisture content. Well-dried plums, having lost two-thirds of their weight, can be stored for about three years. Members of Cordia would have been preserved in a similar way. Some whole specimens were found, in addition to calyxes and huge numbers of stones, 4 x 8 grow tray and support the assumption that they were transported as dried fruits. Dried fruits were among the products offered for sale in Iran , but are probably no longer part of the assortment in Egyptian bazaars. According to Theophrastus , the inhabitants of Thebes made dried destoned fruits of the Egyptian plum into cakes. Fruits of the emblic can be preserved by drying or by pickling in a sugary syrup. Pickled fruits concern whole specimens, whereas recent samples of dried fruits that have been analyzed consist for the most part of fragments of the mesocarp. Segments of the stony endocarp were only present as a contamination. Thus, the few inedible stone fragments found in Berenike indicate a substantial import of the emblic if we assume that they were traded in a dried condition. Berries are fleshy, mostly indehiscent fruits and are represented by the date , the pomegranate , the grape , the persea , the caper bush and members of the Cucurbitaceae. The date contains a single seed; with all other berries the seed count ranges from a few to many. The less-juicy varieties of the date are easily sun-dried and have a suitable sugar-towater proportion of two to one. When they are kept for a long period, they become candied and lose some quality.
Dry varieties are known from the Sudan and are easily transported and stored. Mostly, dried dates still have their seed inside, which explains the large quantities of seeds in the trash dumps of Berenike. Seeds may also be present in a paste made from compressed, soft dates, which is called agwah . The storage life of fresh grapes is limited, but raisins and currants, being a Greek variety from Corinth, can easily be transported and stored. Whole fresh bunches stored in clay jars with chaff were also transported in classical times and they could keep for a long time. However, both jars and such fruits were vulnerable, which is why we may consider the grape more of a luxury item. Due to their sturdy leathery skin, pomegranates can be stored for several weeks despite their juicy content. It is important that carefully picked, unbruised fruits are selected for long-distance transport. Special treatments, such as dipping the fruit in tar or seawater before drying, will benefit the longevity of the fruit . Saltwater also prevents discoloration of the fruit. Fruits that are kept too long will become completely dehydrated and inedible. Transport of pomegranates by caravan trade was possible over quite long distances, as is demonstrated by the trade between Kabul and Peshawar in Afghanistan, a distance of about 250 km . No particular information is available on the preservation of the persea fruits. Judging by their less-juicy consistency and their availability within relatively short distances, it is assumed that preserving the persea would not have caused many problems. Galen mentions that fruits were transported from Persia to Egypt, and were ripe and became edible when they reached the land of destination . Although it is the unripe flower buds of caper bush that enter the commercial trade today, ripe fruits are also edible. Gathering ripe fruits should be done before they burst open. Once the pulp is exposed, the fruits are eaten by animals, most probably by birds that are attracted to the red-colored pulp. Caper fruits are juicy and easily rot when they are ripe. Galen mentions that fruits subjected to transport are sprinkled with salt as a means of preservation .