Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi form a symbiotic association with plants

The desire to increase detector count by up to two orders of magnitude requires a fresh approach. We identified components in current detector systems that are currently not scalable, and proposed to improve their scalability. The five areas that we have chosen to focus on are: Monolithic fabrication of inductors and capacitors for frequency-multiplexed readout, monolithic fabrication of a silicon lenslet array for optical coupling of the detectors, spray application of anti-reflection coatings for silicon lenslet arrays, fully automated wire bonding to the a detector array, and automated electrical inspection of detector array. Current CMB experiments using frequency-domain multiplexing use printed circuit boards with thousands of hand-soldered capacitors in the cryogenic readout electronics. We have developed a monolithic technology at LBNL Micro Systems Lab to fabricate superconducting inductors and capacitors on silicon wafers. We achieved resonances with high quality factor, predictable resonance peak location, and high yield. Using lithographic fabrication greatly reduces cost and gives a scalable technology with an order of magnitude increase in multiplexing factor. We have successfully machined monolithic silicon lenslet arrays from single crystal silicon., which can replace hand-assembed arrays. We have also developed a plasma sprayed ceramic anti-reflection coatings that can replace our current hand-molded coatings. We have also succeeded in wire bonding to our detector wafers with an automatic wire bonder at LBNL. We are bonding at a 100 micron pitch wire bond, which gives higher connection density and lower cost than the manual wire bonding in current use. Finally, we have developed automated electrical inspection that can characterize thousands of detectors per wafer automatically and rapidly. Previously each detector was hand tested for electrical continuity. New telescope techniques that can explore objects in deep space with high resolution and sensitivity in near-IR region are highly demanded for the study of properties of dark energy and dark matter over time. However,rolling benches near-IR observations from the Earth’s surface are extremely challenging because of the bright background emitted from the atmosphere.

Fortunately, these 300+ OH emission lines are intrinsically very narrow, covering only a small fraction of the total spectrum, and the continuum between the lines is typically as dark as zodiacal light, the background level directly observed from space. Therefore, selectively filtering the OH emission light will enable high sensitive deep space near-IR measurements from the ground. We are developing an innovative optical filter system for highly sensitive near-IR observation by effectively removing the OH emission lines from the Earth’s atmosphere. Different from natural materials, the physical properties of a metamaterial is not primarily dependent on its chemical constituents, but rather upon the structures of the building blocks which are much smaller than light wavelengths. The IR filter design is investigated through numerical simulations and we are exploring effective thin film deposition strategies for large number of layers with controlled roughness and stress. The metamaterial near-IR filter system will be fully compatible with existing telescopes and other instruments because of the large acceptance angle, moderate diameter, and thin filter thickness. By tailoring effective optical properties of the nanoscale layered structures, our metamaterial filter system can provide sharp spectral filtering line-width and high transmission of residual signals, which will be otherwise impossible for traditional techniques based on natural materials. Through the design of the nanoscale structures of the filter system and the development of related nanofabrication techniques, we have developed a multilayer algorithm to realize the desired performance. We have also investigated the fabrication process. Our most significant accomplishment is the design of an integral multilayer-filter system. The system can eliminate a large number of OH emission lines in the spectrum from 1.5~1.8 µm where most of skyline noise comes from. Our approach combines the Needle Optimization and the Tunneling method to search for the global minimum of the merit function. We adopt the scheme of distributed IR filters, and different sub-units are assembled to form an integral filter system with a figure of merit around three. Our method can be generally applicable to a broader bandwidth. We have also explored proper fabrication process of growing multilayer thin films with controlled thicknesses and surface roughness. Although we have achieved more than 30 layers of Silica and TiO2 thin films with the thickness of each layer monitored in situ, we realized that it is very challenging to fabricate the full structure with current state-of-art thin film technologies, which requires the deposition of over 1000 layers with total thickness in the order of millimeters and the roughness of each layer less than 1% of its thickness.

We believe this difficulty is resulted from the mathematical limitations of Needle Optimization approach we employed, and a much better mathematical tool must be developed. We are exploring a better design in collaboration with Prof. James A. Sethian, a mathematician to optimize the astrofilter structure with less number of layers and less sensitive to the fabrication errors of surface morphology. Compost is one of the main organic fertilizers. For optimum growth and balanced nutrition, plants need to be fertilized, because Turkish soils are very low in plant nutrients, especially in phosphorus and zinc. With rising environmental concerns about heavy fertilization polluting the soil and water, it is very important to produce mycorrhizal inoculation in order to reduce the amount of chemical fertilizers. Also very recently there has been a great demand for organic production. Since plants are strongly mycorrhiza-dependent, it is meaningful to produce mycorrhiza-inoculated seedlings. Mycorrhizal fungi are the most common symbiotic organisms, occurring on nearly 90% of plant species. Most horticultural plants are colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi , whose presence can enhance the growth of the host plant . Mycorrhizal fungi can expand effectiveness of root surface area for better nutrient and water uptake. Also it has been reported by Douds et al. that mycorrhizal fungi seem to be stimulated in cropping systems which incorporate crop rotations, green manures, reduced tillage and minimize pesticides and chemical fertilizers while utilizing organic amendments. Since the last century human population has risen. Accordingly, there is a huge demand for food. In order to have sufficient food, more chemical input has been used in agriculture in the last 40 years. Consequently, soil quality and plant health decreased. Soil biological fertility and ecological balance have been damaged. Once soil fertility is damaged, it is rather difficult to recover soil sustainability. Therefore, there is a great demand for rehabilitation of soil by adding organic amendments. It is possible to protect the soil environment by using organic sources, such as compost and mycorrhizal applications. Perner et al. reported that the addition of compost in combination with mycorrhizal inoculation can improve nutrient status and flower development of plants grown on peat-based substrates. Labidi et al. studied the influence of added compost and arbuscular mycorrhiza on production of extra-radical mycelia in Acacia cyanophylla, finding that compost addition enhanced the production of AM mycelia in all treatments in Saharan ecosystems. Since there is compost material in natural ecosystem,ebb and flow bench and in the same environment mycorrhiza exists, it was hypothesized that different compost materials have different effects on mycorrhizal inoculation. The role of mycorrhiza in ecological systems still needs to be studied. In forest ecosystems, there is a large amount of compost, and plant roots get benefit from mycorrhiza.

It is important to do research on the role of several composting materials on horticultural plant seedling quality and growth. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse at Çukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, Adana, Turkey. 14 different compost materials were produced. Tomato and pepper plants were inoculated with G. caledonium. A level of 1000- spores per pot was placed 3 cm below the seeds. Non-mycorrhizal plants also received the same amount of mycorrhizal spore free medium. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design in three replications. Plants were fertilized with a mixture of 70% compost, 18% ground basaltic tuff, 10% andesitic tuff and 2% rock phosphate. Seedlings were then produced in two growth media, consisting of organic fertilizer, soil and sand and andesitic tuff, soil and organic fertilizer . Plants were then inoculated with G. caledonium, while control plants received the same amount of growth medium free from mycorrhizal spores. Roots were stained and analyzed for mycorrhizal fungal root colonization based on the gridline intersection method. At harvest time, plant length, stem diameter, shoot and root dry matter, nutrient content and root colonization were determined. The results showed that the mycorrhizal inoculation significantly increased tomato and pepper plant length and that plant diameter depended on compost materials. The efficiency of mycorrhiza, growth media and compost applications were different. The results showed that the mycorrhizal inoculation significantly increased pepper plant length and diameter . In both growth media, animal manure , chicken manure, plant material, straw, and different plant material were determined as the best compost material for tomato growth . 6:3:1 mixed growth media was better than 1:1:1 . In the two growth media, domestic waste, animal fertilizers , plant material and sewage sludge were determined to be the best compost material for pepper plant growth . 6:3:1 mixed growth media was better than 1:1:1 . Pepper and tomato plants grown in 1:1:1 growth medium showed a high response to mycorrhizal inoculum. Mycorrhizal colonization was investigated and it was found that mycorrhizal colonization levels differed by compost materials. As shown previously, mycorrhizal fungi can improve the performance of seedling quality by stimulating nutrient uptake . In the present experiment, effects of different compost materials on plant parameters were more pronounced than the effects of mycorrhizal inoculation. This may be directly related to the nutrient content of compost materials. Soil biological properties, such as useful microorganism, are important for soil quality. Also the interactions between micro organisms, such as mycorrhiza, soil-borne fungi and nematodes are important for sustainable agriculture.In exchange for plant carbohydrates they increase the uptake of immobile nutrients, such as P, Zn, and Cu, and also NH4 + -N, K and Mn . Horticultural cultivation is becoming widespread in the Mediterranean coasts of Turkey. Soils in this region have high levels of clay and lime, which cause P, Zn, Fe and Mn deficiency; consequently, the major problem in the region is nutrient deficiency in several plant species . Cakmak et al. reported that zinc deficiency is a critical nutritional problem for plants and humans in Turkey. Since the Zn is an essential element for several enzymes in plants, Zn deficiency reduces the plant growth dramatically. Zn deficiency can be alleviated by fertilization. However the recent rise in the use of fertilizers has affected both human health and ecosystems. In the last few decades, it has been observed that a reduction of fertilizer input resulted in the improvement of soil quality. We tested whether mycorrhizal inoculation of seedlings could completely or partially substitute fertilizer application. In general, horticultural plants are mycorrhizal dependent. Our earlier results showed that mycorrhizal seedlings are more resistant to environmental stress factors, such as water deficiency and hot temperature. Under field conditions, the effect of mycorrhizal inoculation on the mortality of seedling was tested and it was found that inoculated seedlings had a greater survival rate than non inoculated plants . It is essential to screen efficient AM fungi in order to get the maximum benefit from mycorrhiza for a particular host. Lee and George have shown that G. mosseae inoculated cucumber plants had increased P, Zn, and Cu concentrations, and mycorrhizal hyphae transported those nutrients to the plants. Since most horticultural crops are grown under controlled nursery conditions before being transplanted to the greenhouse or open field, it is possible to inoculate the seedlings in the nursery. The effect of inoculation with several mycorrhizal species on seedling survival and plant growth nutrient uptake and root infection of cucumbers, melons, watermelons and marrows were studied. Several field experiments were carried out on an Arik clay-loam soil, which was classified as an Entic Chromoxerert in the Agricultural Experimental Station of Çukurova University, Adana, in southern Turkey, whose prevailing climate is Mediterranean. Soil is calcareous and pH is 7.7 and organic matter content is 1.46 %. Honey melon , watermelon , cucumber , and marrow seeds were sown in a sand: soil: organic matter growth medium.