All mango farmers reported relying on rain-fed agriculture as orchards were mature

The overall gender profile of participants skewed towards male participants in both farm sizes and across the three commodities with only 25% and 38% female participants from mango and avocado farming systems respectively and no female macadamia farmers . Results indicated that a higher proportion  of all participants were from the age group 51 years and above. This profile was skewed towards small-scale farmers with only 21% of large-scale farmers in this dominant age group and 5.2% who were between 36 – 50 years old. Male farmers represent a larger percentage in this study compared to their female counterparts which is in line with the gender findings of other studies conducted in the Vhembe district and is attributed to cultural norms and values of the Vhenda people from the area. Age distribution results suggest an aging population of farmers within the two main farming systems in the Vhembe district possibly explained by youth having less interest in agricultural activities as they see it as older people’s occupation resultantly creating a disparity of farming knowledge and interest between youth and the elderly.Over half  of participants in the study described the topographic location of the farm as mountainous compared to 47% who said the land was flat. A small proportion  identified the land as being located in a valley. Macadamia farms were commonly located on mountainous locations while mango farms were located in either flat or partly flat locations or avocado farms in either partly flat or mountainous locations. More small-scale farmers  described the topography of the farm as mountainous compared to 15% of large-scale farmers across all commodities.A higher proportion of all participants described the soil as either sandy or loam, 11% described it as clay and a small proportion used other descriptions such as the soil classification name e.g., Hutton or “slippery”. With regard to soil colour, the most common colours identified were red and dark brown , participants also referred to greyish-white and other . Loamy, red soil was the dominant description amongst macadamia farmers. Mango farmers mostly described the soil as sandy and either red or dark-brown. Avocado farmers described the soil as sandy and red in colour.

Responses revealed that large and small-scale farmers made used of various services e.g., specialist soil analysis facilities, the local Department of Agriculture and the local agriculture college to periodically conduct detailed soil analyses.There was no correlation between soil type and average gross annual income and a positive but non-significant correlation between AGAI and soil colour . According to farming on steep slopes is a cause for concern because of the threat of gradual erosion and leaching of nutrients which will enhance land degradation therefore compromising the sustainability of the farming systems. The Vhembe district is made up of complex topography driven by its geomorphology,mobile vertical grow tables it is characterized by the Soutpansberg “Salt Pan Mountain”, which is predominantly quarzitic. Small-scale farmers who occupy mountainous areas in the Vhembe district are allocated this land by the local chief generally as a result of insufficient land in the valleys. The chiefs use their own discretion which is at times influenced by favouritism . Despite farming on steep slopes some of the farmers on this kind of land claim they are able to produce good quality produce which can be attributed to other land characteristics and management practices. Soil colour and soil type can indicate soil fertility. Soil fertility within a farm size can be used to measure production levels and therefore sustainability because it is a limiting factor of production. According to the land type surveys for the Vhembe district issued to the researcher by the ISCW for the period 1973-2004 , the broad description of the soil pattern found in the area is red, freely drained soils with low to intermediate base status. The dominant soil is Hutton  which is characterized as deep. The soil form description for Hutton according to the ISCW is red-brown to brown topsoil overlying freely drained, red apedal soil material. The soil series description is described as medium base status, clay loam to clay textured subsoil; high base status , clay loam to clay. Other soils that characterize the area in which the study falls  are: Streambeds, Valsrivier, Shortlands, Katspruit, Glenrosa. In terms of the commodities, all soils in the district are suitable for production of these crops. Macadamia nuts prefer well drained soils; as a result, most soil types can be regarded as suitable for macadamia production provided, they are well drained without restrictive layers in the top 1 m of the soil. According to Hutton soils are described as an optimal soil type suitable for mango cultivation both under irrigation and dry land cultivation. Avocados prefer deep soil which is well drained as a requirement. With regard to colour, indicate that only reddish-brown, red and dark-brown soils, particularly in the subsoil, are suitable for avocado growth. All of the above requirements match the characteristics of Hutton soil.Based on the coefficient of variation at the 3 weather stations over the 10 years  there was a distinct difference in the CV across the stations with Makwarela having the lowest CV  and a sharp increase to 45% and 50% at Mutale and Malamulele respectively. This showed that there is extremely high variability within the months between the years at Mutale and Malamulele while the rainfall at Makwarela was relatively more reliable. High variability in rainfall amount between years can limit growth. The total monthly rainfall distribution at all 3  indicates thatmost of the annual rainfall comes during the months of September to March. This can be generalized as the wet summer season. The peak rainfall is from December to January/February with rainfall declining significantly after April. Very little rainfall, if none at all, is received between May and August. This can be generalised as the dry, winter season.

The main source of water on farms was rivers , dams , boreholes  and tanks.The use of pipes was the most common form of irrigation identified amongst all participants in the study followed by rain-fed and jet irrigation.Pipes for water reticulation were commonly used by small-scale macadamia and avocado farmers compared to jet irrigation e.g., micro-jet and jet spray irrigation systems were commonly used by a few large-scale macadamia and avocado farmers. Farmers in the Vhembe district who irrigate get higher incomes from on-farm activities as opposed to dry-land farmers due to higher yields. Access to water for irrigation is considered a macro constraint for smallholder farmers in the Vhembe district according to. These farmers are often victims of water shortages and irrigation politics.Theft, of the crop, is the biggest threat, particularly for mango and avocado farmers . This is exacerbated in small-scale farms  due to the lack of fencing. The second most common threat across both small and large-scale farms is diseases and pests. Farmers referred to integrated pest management which they understand as a combination of multiple techniques to prevent pests or their damage as an approach to pest control.The data used to plot Figures 8-11 are presented in Table 3. Results of the Pearson Correlation analysis showed there was a weak positive and statistically significant correlation between farm size and yield amongst macadamia farmers, a strong negative correlation amongst mango farmers and strong negative correlation amongst avocado farmers. Yield results with respect to commodity and farm size reveal that farm size does not always correlate to high yields as can be seen amongst some large-scale mango and avocado farms. This suggests that farm size alone cannot guarantee a high yield and there is need to consider a broader range of aspects. Increases in yield per unit area will require more investment into issues of soil fertility management, soil and water conservation, pest and disease control and technology usage amongst others.The data used to plot Figure 12 are presented in Table 3. The average gross annual income from farming amongst participants ranged between R5000 and R40 million across the three commodities. Results revealed that macadamia farmers obtained the highest farming incomes, in both large-scale farms, average of R25,100,000, and small-scale, average of R120,000 compared to avocado, average of R20,075,000 amongst large-scale farmers and R22,500 amongst small-scale farmers, and mango, R20,000 for the large-scale farmer and an average of R57,333 amongst small-scale farmers, farmers.  Results of the Pearson Correlations analysis show that there is a positive statistically significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst macadamia farmers , a positive significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst mango farmers and a strong positive significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst avocado farmers.This discussion will relate the various results to each other and to the overall understanding of these results on the sustainability of the systems. The results showed that males were mostly responsible for the farming activities and this may have a negative impact on sustainability of the farming systems in the future because demographic statistics show that female numbers are growing more quickly than male numbers. The age of active farmers was mostly above 51.

According to in most rural smallholder communities in the Limpopo Province, the youth often leave the farm lands in the rural areas to seek employment in the towns; this may pose a threat to sustainability as there will not be enough farmers with suitable agricultural experience to continue the cultivation of HVCs in future. It is proposed by that secure land tenure is a necessary pre-condition for the adoption of long-term sustainability of farming practices which characterizes sustainable farming systems. Results of the study do not support this theory as the majority of the farmers farm on communal land. If there were significant changes in land tenure policy in the Vhembe district, this would make the area vulnerable in terms of sustainability of the farming systems for both farm sizes. This is highly plausible, in the future, as land reform remains a pressing and controversial issue in the South African political context. The agronomic conditions for crop cultivation are mostly suitable with respect to the inherent soil fertility, however, fertilizer inputs are low due to high prices. The three areas studied receive differing amounts of rainfall, two areas are in the 650 mm range and the other area receives about 1020 mm. However, the CV of annual amount is much larger in the areas with the lower amounts of rainfall making these areas more vulnerable which may result in non-sustainable production conditions. According to the adverse effects of climate change on agricultural productivity in South Africa are on the increase. These include rainfall decreases amongst others. Future decreases in rainfall will make farms that are completely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, such as the mango farmers in the study, vulnerable in terms of sustainability. The challenges of theft, pests and diseases pose a threat to production and sustainability of the farming systems as lower incomes from farming can be expected as a result of low yields. This will negatively impact on farmers’ ability to finance farm operations. Land is a finite resource that cannot be increased indefinitely. Efforts to increase yields therefore need to target changes in land management, which should incorporate a range of considerations such as training, the incorporation of organic farming practices such as those suggested by Dassou et al. , access to finance, mobile vertical farm the use of higher inputs and changed technologies. According to annual tree-crop income amongst smallholder farmers in the Vhembe district, although still very limited, constitutes the main agricultural income. In the few cases that there is additional income from non-tree crops, it is generated from a wide range of vegetable crops and contributes a very small share of agricultural income. The same author asserts that non-tree crops, mostly vegetables, are primarily responsible for the agricultural income and are perceived to be a short-term strategy for income generation whilst waiting for tree-crops to reach maturity. This serves as a sustainable farming practice that can facilitate sustainable farming systems for small-scale farmers. Macadamia nuts is the fastest growing tree crop industry in the country and their production is lucrative.