Agricultural development has been affected by natural climate variability and extreme climate events which have caused significant decline in productivity resulting in food insecurity and poverty among rural communities. Precipitation changes are currently insufficient for many crops that water scarcity increasingly con- strains production . Analyses conducted by the Nigerian Meteorological Agency , have found that drought disasters are significantly more probable in re- cent times . While droughts are frequent, the rate of growth in agriculture has been one of the slowest in terms of production and productivity . The pressure also includes the intensified use of more fragile land re- sources, leading to accelerated degradation of the soil to desert-like conditions, thereby reducing sustainable agricultural production . Today, Nigeria has less than 9% of the total cropped area under irrigation. Hence, the rural population is very vulnerable to rainfall fluctuations. Despite the economic hardship and the prolonged effects of drought and desertification, the people in the drought prone areas of northern Nigeria possess great reliance, patience, and adaptive capacity . Environmental de- gradation caused by successive years of poor rainfall amount/distribution and recurrent droughts is exacerbated by combined effects of natural population growth and immigration from neighboring resource-poorer countries. In this study we focused on the vast traditional knowledge of the farmers on rainfall prediction and their understanding of its reliability through their observation, experience and practice in the field. Understanding them is not only necessary to communicate the scientific fore- cast, since it is learnt and identified by farmers within a cultural context and the knowledge base which follows specific language, belief and process. By perceiving such a knowledge base, it may facilitates social interaction and promote acceptance of scientific forecast among the farmers.
The South American Andes are rife with environmental problems related to human activities in fragile eco-systems. Andean populations are among the poorest in South America and often depend on rain-fed agriculture. The Andes form the headwaters of many of the great river systems of South America, and runoff and agriculture-related pollution can have negative consequences far from their sources. Humans are encroaching into fragile high plains as population pressures at lower elevations extend the agricultural frontier. Strategies to address these problems include more environmentally benign agricultural technologies in fragile areas,hydroponic bucket intensified production in less-fragile areas to reduce pressure on more fragile areas, and raising income-earning potential through less land-intensive activities. A key is to alter human behavior. Adaptive management processes show promise as means of altering behavior to attain agreed- upon goals. A watershed approach to natural resource management has been tried in different settings with varying degrees of success. Watersheds define natural linkages between human populations and their environments . Watershed management is consistent with decentralized governance, which is gaining favor in Andean countries . However, modern watershed management techniques require digitized data that are of limited availability in high mountain areas, and watershed management often requires the cooperation of competing and overlapping levels of local and regional government. A watershed management approach faces many challenges. Any watershed approach must begin with the notion that watershed-level outcomes are products of individual decisions on fields spread across the catchment’s area. These decisions reflect household livelihood strategies of allocating their physical, human, natural, and other assets to earn livings, increase well-being, and manage multiple risks . Individual decisions have compound effects and impacts on aggregate economic and environmental outcomes result from a complex mosaic of economic, social, and physical networks that characterize all water-sheds. The driving factor is human decision making. Effective management must identify mechanisms for changing human activities and introduce options to raise incomes while mitigating negative environmental consequences. Integrated adaptive watershed management is a relatively new concept in Ecuador, but it provides hope that some environmental problems can be addressed through consensus building.
The 1970s-era focus of tops-down watershed management has evolved over time and newer concepts recognize the holistic nature of the relationship between land use, agricultural production, natural re- source conservation, and reduction of contaminants. It also recognizes that watershed outcomes result from human decisions . Our integrated watershed management program in the Chimbo sub-watershed in Bolivar Province is guided by four concepts: 1) Agricultural intensification can be consistent with sustainable natural resource management ; 2) Sustainable agricultural practices can contribute to preservation of bio-diversity ; 3) Increased bio-diversity can contribute to household food security by diversifying diets and reducing risks of crop failure ; and 4) Even the poorest of the poor are interested in and capable of adopting environmentally friendly technologies . Evidence shows that these arguments are valid in the Ecuadorean highlands . Ecuador’s National Autonomous Agricultural Research Institute has engaged farmers in the Chimbo for many years and has found farmers to be receptive to solutions to natural re- source problems . Over time, INIAP has created important strategic alliances and generated broad support for integrated adaptive watershed management. INIAP now combines an integrated adaptive management approach with a livelihoods focus, recognizing that any effort to improve environmental conditions must also create economic space for conservation actions. The objectives of this paper are to describe the adaptive watershed management process, obstacles overcome during its implementation, and provide a preliminary assessment of program impacts. We describe the site, present our research methods, and identify specific innovations attributable to the research. We then discuss research findings with respect to returns to management practices and describe how the recommended practices have spread over time. The paper concludes by discussing lessons learned and how the adaptive management process can be applied to other areas. The program was structured around an adaptive water- shed management conceptual framework. This frame- work begins with the watershed as a geographic entity and recognizes that actors within the watershed make decisions that affect the entire watershed. The adaptive management framework is well-known but has rarely been applied in a developing country context. It begins with an assessment of conditions and identification of problems faced by actors in the watershed. Stakeholders are engaged in goal-setting, and research is designed to address obstacles to achieving goals. Re- search findings are then used in a participatory process with stakeholders to produce watershed plans. These plans are implemented and outcomes are monitored. Monitoring could lead to changes in plans over time, and the adaptive cycle begins again.
We introduce two innovations to this framework: Plans are adapted on a regular basis as the research base and acceptance of it grows, and the land-use plans include consideration of household decision making and how decisions create impact across multiple systems within the watershed. The household decision process reflects livelihood choices. A livelihood refers to the capabilities, assets , stackable planters and activities required for a means of living , or how labor, land, and other assets are distributed among productive and reproductive activities. The decision to adopt a livelihood is based on the household asset base; available alternatives; institutional, policy, and social environments; access to information; and the natural environment. Asset allocation decisions have effects on household wellbeing, the ability to save and invest, and the natural environment. For example, adoption of a maize technology affects labor and land allocations, income, risk exposure, and may affect erosion, runoff, and future soil quality. All these outcomes were identified as important during implementation of the adaptive management process. The management program was built on four dimensions: communication, coordination, compromise and co- operation. The project facilitated movement along these dimensions through regular community meetings and a process of participatory research. Interactions helped generate consensus about key problems and solutions most likely to be successful. Our assessment began with a participatory rural appraisal to identify productive activities, assets, and perceptions about environmental conditions. The PRA was followed by a statistically representative house- hold survey that collected information from 286 families. The survey covered household demographics, assets, sources of income, agricultural practices and others. These data were used to categorize households into livelihood typologies and conduct analysis of household decision making processes. Survey observations were georeferenced, which allowed us to overlay survey information with agroecological, soils, infrastructure and other information in a GIS. The GIS was used to create thematic maps for the community engagement process, and to inform and structure research. Emphasis was placed on identifying alternatives and evaluating them through hands-on research. For example, conversion of lands to permanent pasture or reversion to woodlands was not initially viewed as desirable. An assessment of biodiversity, together with research on alter- natives to reduce erosion on productive lands, helped convince stakeholders that a combination of reversion together with adoption of erosion control practices in the most erosion-sensitive areas would help meet objectives about which consensus had been reached. Similar re- search efforts were undertaken to help find more effective soil fertility management regimes, more environmentally benign pest control methods, etc. Livelihoods and their diversity: The baseline survey and information from the PRA were used to identify livelihood clusters. A quantitative hierarchical clustering method was combined with expert opinion to create these clusters. The livelihood clusters can be thought of as groupings of households with similar asset bases and different means of combining them to earn incomes. Some clusters were exclusively agriculture, others rely on off-farm incomes, and others on remittances from outside the area . Water quality analysis: Early in the process, stake- holders decided that water quality should be monitored. Monitoring results were used to evaluate impacts of land-use changes on water quality. We measured bio- indicators , physical-chemical com- positions, and micro-biological parameters . This monitoring helped engage community members and built ownership of the research. Key macro-invertebrates were identified in exercises with local school children during 2006 and 2007; subsequent monitoring was incorporated into the local curriculum .
Monthly chemical analysis begins with samples being extracted by community members and sent to Quito for detailed analysis. Nitrate, phosphorus, total solids, temperature, pH, conductivity, fecal coliform, and total coliform are all measured. Data on rainfall and stream flows are being collected and used to calibrate our watershed models . Biodiversity assessment: The PRA indicated that stake- holders were not aware of biodiversity or its importance. Early on, an assessment activity evaluated the richness and diversity of plant and animal species. The focus was on remaining natural woodlands and areas where water recharge occurs . The assessment incorporated local knowledge about the value, uses and abundance of native plant and animal species. Stakeholders helped transect the study area, and collect photographic and physical evidence. Evidence was classified and categorized at the National Herbarium in Quito. Strategic transects were also undertaken in remnant woodlands and areas of high vulnerability . Physical and environmental vulnerability: We stratified our on-farm agronomic research according to an index of physical vulnerability which included six parameters: slope, vegetative coverage, rain- fall frequency and intensity, wind intensity, seasonal variability and soil texture. These indicators were selected following focus group discussions with technicians and local farmers. The index takes a value between 0 and 1, with 0 signifying no vulnerability and 1 representing areas of extreme vulnerability. The index was especially useful in helping producers understand linkages between farming practices, soil loss, and subsequent off-farm damages. Farmers had their parcels classified and the index values and information on actual land use were incorporated into the GIS. This information was used to identify environmental hot-spots and to inform subsequent land use plans. Design of environmentally friendly alternatives: The program selected 13 production systems for research on more sustainable practices. All the practices were consistent with livelihood clusters. Illangama systems revolved around a well-established potato-dairy rotation, while in Alumbre maize-beans predominate . Trials were established on pilot farms to evaluate impacts on income, labor use, environmental degradation, etc. of these practices. Best Management Practices were targeted for implementation in high-vulnerability areas .The micro-watersheds are distinguished by major differences in flora biodiversity. We identified around 162 tree and bush species in the area. In Illangama and Alumbre we identified 13 and 32 species, respectively, unique to that micro-watershed. Only 17 families of species were common to both micro-watersheds. Biodiversity is far richer in Alumbre, where the warmer climate is more conducive to species diversification.