Arguably the most momentous shift in cultural practices for strawberries was the introduction of preplant soil fumigants, beginning with chloropicrin in the 1950s and methyl bromide in the 1960s. Fumigation is a soil disinfestation practice that improves plant productivity and helps with the management of arthropods, nematodes, weeds, soilborne fungi and other plant pathogens. Some of the most difficult to control pathogens include Verticillium dahliae, Fusarium spp. and Macrophomina phaesolina. Without soil fumigation, these pathogens have the potential to completely destroy strawberry plantings. Early on, when CP and MB were mixed and applied together, the synergistic effects allowed strawberries to be produced as an annual rather than a biennial crop, and to be grown continuously on the same land without rotation to another crop, resulting in an increase in annual strawberry acreage. The use of fumigants also led to higher and more predictable yields and fruit quality, blueberry grow pot and further enabled the development of more stable markets for strawberries . Yields for strawberries statewide increased from a range of 2 to 4 tons per acre prior to the introduction of soil fumigants to 16 tons per acre by 1969 . Additional cultural improvements included the development of both UC and proprietary strawberry varieties uniquely adapted to coastal production conditions. Varieties were bred, for example, for disease resistance, yield and market potential.
Notable UC-bred strawberry varieties include Tufts , Pajaro, Douglas, Chandler, and Selva , Camarosa and Seascape , and Aromas, Albion and Monterey . Irrigation practices also evolved, shifting from furrow irrigation in the 1960s to drip irrigation in the 1980s, which led to further improvements in plant disease management and greater water use efficiency. These and other enhancements meant that by 2012, yields could exceed 35 tons per acre . More recently, the strawberry industry has focused on “fine-tuning” fertility and water management for more efficient resource use, along with additional yield and fruit quality improvements . The Santa Cruz–Monterey area is also recognized for its early experience with conversion of conventional strawberry production to organic management . Organic strawberry production was shown to result in lower yields, which, when offset by premium prices could potentially offer higher net returns to growers. The importance of crop rotation for disease management was not addressed in the initial study by Gliessman et al. but has since been the focus of additional research, as have more complete analyses of the economics of organic strawberry production . Growers and area researchers continue to collaborate and advance organic strawberry production techniques. Most notably, a long-term research commitment has been made to determine organically acceptable disease management practices such as anaerobic soil disinfestation , the use of commercially available soil-applied biological organisms and the incorporation of soil amendments such as mustard seed and its derivatives.
The area is now seen as a global leader in organic strawberry research, and in 2012 the first organic strawberry production manual was published by UC Agriculture and Natural Resources . Statistics documenting expansion of the organic strawberry industry over time are not available on a county-by-county basis, but statistics for California show prodigious growth in acreage and value of production: from $9.7 million in 2000 to $93.6 million in 2012, a 621% increase in real dollars . Caneberries Like strawberries, raspberries and blackberries have benefitted from enhancements in cultural practices. When well-managed, both types of caneberries can produce crops for up to 20 years. However, to maintain acceptable quality and yield Central Coast growers typically manage raspberries and blackberries so that they produce two and five crops, respectively, prior to removal and replanting. In Santa Cruz County, raspberry production was relatively flat in the 1960s and 1970s, but began to increase substantially in the 1980s . This can be explained by a shift from floricane, or spring-bearing varieties, to the then newly developed proprietary primocane, or fall-bearing varieties, that do not carry the productivity constraints associated with the inadequate chill requirements along the Central Coast. Primocane-bearing varieties allow growers to successfully produce a high quality raspberry crop in low- or no-chill coastal locations, and further manipulate time to harvest and yield with pruning and other management practices .
Between 1990 and 2014, the number of acres planted to Santa Cruz and Monterey area raspberries almost tripled, tons produced increased by about 350% and the value of production was up by over 400% in real dollars . Santa Cruz County raspberry growers began to experiment with and adopt field-scale semi-permanent protective structures or tunnels in the 1990s and 2000s . Initially developed in Europe, field-scale tunnels allow growers to extend their production seasons, enhance yield and fruit quality, and capture high off-season prices for fresh market fruit . The controlled environment, and resulting security of production, also allows for greater market stability. This shift away from open-field production to protected cropping, along with breeding improvements, has had lasting impacts on the raspberry industry and its expansion. Cultural improvements geared towards fresh market blackberry production are more recent and include advances in breeding for thornless varieties and quality attributes . In 2011, a public primocane-bearing blackberry variety became commercially available for the first time and is now being planted in the area. Since that time, additional public and proprietary primocane-bearing varieties have been in development; some have already become available. Open-field production was the norm until recently, but to ensure marketable fruit of high quality, and as growers have shifted additional acreage to primocane-bearing varieties, tunnel culture has been more widely adopted and, based on discussions with growers, is now estimated at roughly 80% of the acreage. Like organic strawberries, remarkable growth in the statewide production of organic raspberries and blackberries was documented between 2000 and 2012 . Acreage climbed by over 500% in both organic berry categories. Value of production was up over 3,000% in real dollars for organic raspberries and up by almost the same percentage for organic blackberries. It is important to note that although the organic raspberry and blackberry categories have demonstrated extraordinary growth, they still represent a relatively small percentage of all berry production in the area.Research points to several factors that have spurred consumer demand for all berries. Berries contain bio-active compounds, including essential vitamins, minerals, fiber and antioxidants that contribute to healthy diets, and that help to reduce the risks associated with some chronic diseases and cancers . This information has been widely shared with consumers through, for example, government programs promoting healthy eating , and more generic berry promotion programs . Per capita consumption of fresh strawberries in the United States almost doubled from 1994 to 2014, increasing from 4.1 to 8.0 pounds . U.S. per capita consumption of fresh raspberries was small by comparison, at just 0.5 pounds in 2014. Similar consumption data are not available for blackberries, but Cook notes that consumers generally view berries as complementary, and that sales for all berries have increased. Indeed, in 2014, berry sales increased 5.8% over 2013; berries were the number one produce category for U.S. grocery retailers, at $5.7 billion in annual sales . Some berry operations also benefit from their proximity to the area’s urban centers, which have sizeable cohorts of educated, high-income consumers who generally demonstrate an interest in health and wellness, hydroponic bucket local agriculture and fresh and organic products. In addition to the more traditional grower shipper and direct marketing channels, new technology-driven food marketing companies — virtual food hubs — have evolved to cater to this demographic. They promote the values of sustainable communities, local food economies and business integrity and transparency, all important attributes for new 21st century consumers . These companies form relationships with local growers, provide some technical and market support, and enhance sales and engagement with consumers. It is not yet clear what impacts these still-niche marketing businesses may have on the industry in total. However, growers have responded to the various health and market signals by ramping up production of both conventional and organic products, berries included.
Specialists and farm advisors with UC Cooperative Extension have performed economic analyses for Santa Cruz and Monterey county fresh market berry crops for decades . The studies estimate production costs for a representative enterprise based on characteristics common to the area’s farms. Data are collected from established growers, input suppliers and other industry experts so that a diversity of operations and practices are taken into account. Since 1990, UCCE researchers have used a farm budget software program to analyze the data and present results in several formats detailing costs for cultural and harvest practices, monthly cash costs and business and investment overhead costs. The studies also include an analysis estimating net returns to growers for several yield and price scenarios. Representative costs for food safety and environmental quality programs have been incorporated into more recent studies as they have evolved to become standard business practices. The resulting production and economic information is specifically designed to assist growers, bankers, researchers and government agencies with business and policy decisions.The first economic analysis of fresh market strawberry production for Santa Cruz and Monterey counties was performed in 1969; at least one subsequent analysis has been conducted every decade since then. Though the level of detail and data included in each study has changed over time, some interesting trends can be noted. Annual land rent climbed from $150 per acre in 1969 to $2,700 in 2014, representing 2.5% and 5.5% of total production costs, respectively. The cost of soil fumigation for conventional strawberry production increased from $350 per acre in 1969 to $3,302 in 2010, representing 5.5% and 6.9% of total production costs, respectively. Production year water use gradually decreased from 80 acre-inches per acre in 1969 to 36 acre-inches by 1996 as drip irrigation became the standard. The amount of water used to bring a crop to harvest has remained roughly the same since that time; however, growers and researchers continue to investigate methods to increase water use efficiency even further. In some areas, soil types and fields, growers have been able to reduce per acre water use by several acre-inches more . When the above costs and water usage are assessed on a per ton rather than a per acre basis, production practice cost increases are less notable, and water savings even greater. Labor-intensive practices such as hand weeding and harvest are consistently shown as costly line items relative to other operations. Representative yields for conventionally produced fresh market strawberries rose from 20 tons per acre in the 1969 study to 30 tons in 2010, an increase of 50%. Even higher yields are discussed for some varieties and production conditions; county production statistics confirm that higher yields are indeed possible . Representative yields for organic strawberries, studied over a much shorter time period, rose from 15 tons per acre in 2006 to 17 tons in 2014, an increase of 13%. As more research is directed towards organic agriculture in general and strawberries in particular, yields will likely increase even more with time. Recent efforts include improvements in cultivar breeding, cultural practices and disease management, especially soil pathogen management. The most recent economic analyses for conventional, second year conventional and organic strawberry production were performed in 2010, 2011 and 2014, respectively. Second year conventional strawberries, or those producing a crop for a second year after having produced the first without replanting, represent about 15% of the total strawberry acreage in the area. Similarities and differences in total, cultural and pest management costs for the three management approaches are shown in figures 1 to 3. Total costs for conventional strawberries were $47,882 per acre and include expenses for all practices from land preparation to harvest . For the second year conventional strawberry crop, total costs were lower at $32,798 per acre, reflecting a reduction in expenditures for land preparation and reduced harvest costs because of lower yield. For organic strawberries, total costs were $49,044 per acre, slightly higher than for conventional production, mostly due to higher soil fertility input costs. Harvest, a labor-intensive practice, clearly represents the lion’s share of total costs, at 58% in organic production, 60% in conventional production and 67% in second year conventional berries. Cultural costs represent 26% of total costs in the conventional and organic systems, but only 15% for second year strawberries because there were no associated planting costs, and because pest management costs were lower .