Likewise, Nicolás et al. found a better photosynthetic performance after inoculating Crimson grapevines grown in a commercial vineyard. Indeed, a recent meta-analysis demonstrated that AMF exert a positive influence on photosynthetic rates, stomatal conductance, and water use efficiency on both C3 and C4 plants subjected to salt stress . Merlot grapevines did not show changes on their berry primary metabolites as affected by the treatments applied . Similarly, a recent study evaluating the effect of different sustained deficit irrigation and RDI showed no differences in must pH and TSS in Merlot berries in a 4-year field experiment conducted in a hot climate . This lack of effect of the irrigation systems on berry primary metabolism might be due to grapevines were not subjected to a severe water stress . On the other hand, previous studies showed that inoculation with AMF of grapevines vineyards did not affect TSS or TA under field conditions or under controlled conditions and our results corroborated these findings. Regarding secondary metabolism, neither irrigation systems nor AMF inoculation modified flavonol and anthocyanin total content at harvest . Similarly, a 2-year field study conducted in Central valley in Califtornia with Merlot did not report differences on flavonol or anthocyanin skin content due to different irrigation amounts . A previous study conducted on Cabernet Sauvignon subjected to water deficit reported that although flavonol synthesis related genes were up-regulated after the onset of fruit ripening, this did not affect berry flavonol concentration at harvest . Similarly, hydroponic channel previous studies with Tempranillo grown under controlled conditions did not observed differences due to AMF inoculation on the total content of flavonol and anthocyanins in berry skins .
Flavonol composition was affected by treatments. Thus, HII grapevines increased quercetin and decreased syringetin contents in berry skins at harvest in accordance to a previous study . Indeed, it is known that AMF inoculation up-regulated phenyl-propanoid biosynthesis key genes in grapevines in response to pathogens . On the other hand, HI led to decreased contents of quercetins, laricitrins, kaempferols, syringetins, and isorhamnetins. Likewise, Martínez-Lüscher et al. found that in spite of the increase in O-methyl-transferase transcript level, methylated flavonols did not increase under water deficit. These authors suggested that given the higher affinity of OMT for quercetins, the lower concentration of quercetins under water deficit could act as a limiting factor for the synthesis of methylated forms, and our findings corroborated this hypothesis. Regarding anthocyanin composition, berry skins from HI grapevines showed lower contents of di-substituted anthocyanins than the ones of FI grapevines. It is well known that water deficit regulates the expression of key genes of the flavonoid pathway such as the flavonoid 30 -hydroxylase, flavonoid 30 ,50 -hydroxylase, and O-methyltransferase in red cultivars . Therefore, these decreased contents of disubstituted anthocyanins were likely explained by a different regulation of these genes when grapevines are subjected to water deficit. The role of AMF for enhancing phenolic compounds was reported in several studies with potted grapevines. Thus, AMF grapevines showed increased content of resveratrol, viniferins, and pterostilbene , total phenols and quercetin content , and total flavonoids in leaves of different grapevine varieties facing different biotic and/or abiotic stresses. Moreover, increased anthocyanin contents were reported in berries from grapevines grown under water deficit and warming conditions . Similarly, we found a strong relationship between the percentage of mycorrhizal colonization and some flavonoids .
The economic analysis data indicated that AMF inoculation and water management did not affect the cost of labor operations, in spite of irrigating with half amount may lead to decreases in yield. However, this came with reductions of the water footprint that have to be taken into account. It is noteworthy that extreme weather recorded in 2020 could modulate the effects described in this work. Moreover, the mycorrhizal extraradical mycelium coexists with soil microbial communities and the synergistic activity between the AMF, the bacterial communities, and the grapevine modulates the benefits of symbiosis on nitrogen fixation, P solubilization, and production of phytohormones, siderophores, and antibiotics . On the other hand, previous studies demonstrated that the microbiome of vineyards is shaped by cropping management , and little is known about whether these communities stimulate or suppress the extraradicular mycelium activity . Therefore, given the effect of AMF inoculation and different irrigation amounts had on grapevine physiology and berry composition, further studies should consider the potential effects of these management practices on vineyard soil living microbiota. Current research aimed to study how Merlot grapevines responded to AMF inoculation and different water amounts in their first productive year in situ. Our results highlighted the role of AMF inoculation for improving vegetative growth, photosynthetic activity, and water status of grapevines, especially when facing mild water deficits in field grown grapevines. Additionally, a strong relationship between the mycorrhizal colonization of roots and some flavonoids was found, corroboration the effect of AMF for regulating anthocyanin and flavonol metabolisms. Finally, although some berry quality traits and grapevine performance were improved by AMF inoculation under water deficit, AMF inoculation was not sufficient to avoid the yield losses due to water deficit in the first productive year of Merlot when facing a hyper-arid growing season.
It is noteworthy that these results may be affected by edaphoclimatic characteristics and living microbiota in vineyard soils, which should be taken into account before making the decision of inoculating the vineyard. Therefore, this study offer a starting point to assess the effect of AMF inoculation on young vines under real field conditions. However, benefits distinct from simple nutrition, such as phytochemicals have recently become clear. Diets rich in a plethora of phytochemicals can promote a healthy and diverse gut microbiota, reduce intestinal and systemic inflammation, and decrease the risk of colorectal cancer and type 2 diabetes melliThus. Some of these benefits can be observed around the world. Many parts of India have historically low colon cancer incidence rates. The Indian subcontinent has been continuously settled for millennia. Ancient cities in the Indus valley have been dated to the third and fourth millennia BC and some sites are even older. Archaeological evidence of grain cultivation, including several varieties of barley and wheat, has been found in excavations dated to the sixth millennium BC. Wheat is still a staple crop in northern India, and many other grains, including barley, were commonly cultivated and eaten until the 1950s, when wheat and white rice became dominant. Although the country has many diverse cultures, some customs remain common and conventional throughout the nation. One such tradition is the form of main meals where a large round platter, the thali, holds rice or bread and several smaller bowls, or katori, which hold a separate condiment or curry to be eaten with the rice or bread at the diner’s preference. Typical dishes include, but are not limited to, dal , yogurt , and assorted spices and vegetables. The development of agriculture early in its history has allowed India to develop rich traditions around food. These traditions have been deeply influenced by Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of medicine. In Ayurvedic practice, food is a source of nourishment and medicine, used to both prevent and treat illness. Maintaining a proper balance of Ayurvedic elements through diet is considered an effective way to live a healthy liftestyle. According to the Ayurvedic principles, each meal should contain a balance of the six major flavors. This calls for the many small portions of a thali meal which also easily incorporate variety. A variety of flavors in a meal often indicates the presence of many classes of bio-active compounds . Although these substances may not be macronutrients, vitamins, or minerals, they still impact human health. Polyphenols are perhaps the largest class of bio-active compounds, containing subclasses such as flavonoids, isoflavones, stilbenes, lignans, and tannins. As a flavonoid subgroup, anthocyanins are included in this class. Anthocyanins are of interest in the food industry as nontoxic and water-soluble pigments, as most are colored red, purple, or blue, and many display antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. A class of phytochemicals called polyphenols is also found in virtually all plant foods, though their quantity may be reduced by preparation methods. Rich sources of anthocyanins include deeply colored fruits and vegetables, such as blueberries, eggplants, hydroponic dutch buckets and certain carrot and potato cultivars. Given that many phytochemicals exert anti-inflammatory activity via promoting gut bacterial diversity, there is a growing interest in a food-based approach to countering the growing epidemic of inflammation-promoted chronic diseases such as colon cancer.We have learned that no discussion of diet is complete without consideration of the intestinal microbiota. Trillions of bacteria, distributed throughout the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus, facilitate digestion and intestinal homeostasis. Structural factors greatly impact the overall makeup of each community. For example, low pH prohibits many pathogenic bacteria from colonizing the stomach and the upper small intestine. The depths of the large intestine, on the other hand, is an ideal habitat for many anaerobes. The gut microbiota is a dynamic community, composed of living organisms that can alter in response to diet, disease, and other environmental pressures. Changes in the intestinal microbiota were first correlated with illness in 1681 when Anton van Leeuwenhoek recorded that the microbial composition of his diarrhea differed from normal fecal samples. Since then, the intestinal microbiome has been closely studied to show how it can be implicated in a variety of conditions ranging from obesity to colon cancer. A great deal of investigation into microbiota has been accomplished in the last decade. Many of these observed changes result in an overall loss of bacterial diversity in the microbiota, indicating that species diversity is associated with health. However, the opposite may be true for cause-consequence relations, but not enough research has been brought to light. High-throughput technologies have driven advances in identifying the trillions of microbes and the metabolic functions that live in the colon.
This led to a critical insight that gut plays as dynamic of a role in metabolism as the liver. The proximity of these microbes to the intestinal mucosa and gut lymphoid Thissue explains the critical role they play in health and disease. Indeed, dysbiosis plays a significant role in the development of inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and colon cancer. Emerging evidence suggests that diet can directly influence the content and composition of gut microbiota. Thus, understanding the complex interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and the host are crucial in prevention and treatment of chronic diseases that plague our society. Studies in murine models have shown rapid changes in the gut bacteria of mice being switched quickly from a standard diet to a high-calorie diet back to a standard diet. In humans, surveys show that diets high in fiber correlate with higher microbial diversity and reduced populations of Enterobacteriaceae, including Escherichia and Shigella species. Marked differences are also seen during consumption of animal- vs. plant-based diets. While nutrients in the diet will affect intestinal microbes, other substances present in food may also have an effect. For example, most anthocyanins are not absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine, and so they stay in the gastrointestinal tract until they reach the colon. There, they can affect the colonic microbiota in multiple ways. Firstly, anthocyanins have antioxidant activity that can reduce inflammation-induced oxidative stress on the gut bacteria. Secondly, anthocyanins are a potential carbon source, which bacteria can metabolize, resulting in increased growth of certain microbes. Lastly, bacterial metabolism of anthocyanins produces a variety of metabolite byproducts, some of which have antimicrobial effects on enteric pathogen species including Escherichia coli.Chronic intestinal inflammation is a hallmark of certain bowel disorders, such as ulcerative coliThis and Crohn’s disease, which are two major forms of inflammatory bowel diseases , and IBD is also considered a risk factor for colorectal cancer. In the latter, inflammation is generally low-grade but persists over a long period of time. Diet composition can promote or suppress chronic inflammation. Low-fiber high-calorie diets, which are typical in Western countries, may directly promote inflammation, or as already discussed, indirectly promote this through dysbiosis. Indeed, some dietary patterns associated with chronic inflammation are also linked to the reduction of total microbial diversity and imbalances in intestinal microbial groups. Furthermore, some bacteria, including E. coli, can flourish during low-grade inflammation, where thinning of the intestinal mucus layer occurs and allows for more direct interaction between the host’s cells and the intestinal bacteria.