Month: June 2022

The reducing investments in the horticulture industry together with the challenges affecting the industry have continued to adversely affect horticultural production and export constraining its growth and contribution to the economy. According to , the area devoted to cut flowers and fresh vegetables in Zambia has stagnated at 140 hectares, compared to Kenya’s over a million hectares, because of high lending rates that prohibit most people from venturing into horticulture production. Furthermore, because the industry is largely export oriented, significant financial losses continue to be incurred by exporters each time the currency fluctuates upwards . According to , financial losses of about 30 percent of export value were incurred because of the appreciation of the Zambian Kwacha against the US Dollar and other major world currencies in 2005. Furthermore, tightening standards in the EU export destinations in recent years, mainly to control quantity of imports, have also served a major blow to the Zambian horticultural sector, especially among smallholder producers. For instance, it is argued that the cost of compliance to the European retailers’ private standards for Good Agricultural Practices  cut farmers’ incomes in half between 2002 and 2006 . As a result, less than 3 percent of the smallholder and commercial farmers involved in supplying foreign markets in 2000 were still doing so in 2006 .  reveals that a total of 22 horticultural farms that were involved in production in 2000 had ceased production by 2004 resulting in the loss of about 1440 and 82 hectares of vegetables and flowers, respectively. Empirical studies have identified two main sets of factors that explain the performance of agricultural exports in international trade. One set comprises factors that are external to the individual country, such as volume of growth of world primary commodity markets and producer prices or commodity terms of trade.

The other emphasizes variables that are internal to the country, including macroeconomic, production and demographic variables, and policies. Many researchers have studied the impact of domestic factors on agricultural exports. Most identify production, demographic, macroeconomic variables, and public investments in infrastructure as important factors. For instance, , using error correction models, found Nigeria’s agricultural exports to be positively influenced by domestic producer prices and negatively by population growth. These findings were consistent with  and .  also identified relative rainfall amounts, export credit, and improvement in road network as being directly correlated with agricultural exports. In a study in Egypt to determine factors that influence agricultural exports, , using the gravity model approach, found that agricultural exports increase with GDP. These findings are consistent with those by  who also found GDP to have a significant positive impact on volume and competitiveness of South Africa’s agricultural exports. While it has been argued that high interest rates attract domestic savings,dutch buckets studies have found high rates to discourage local investments by increasing the cost of capital . As a result,  argues that monetary policies should ensure appropriate interest rates that break the double-edge effect of interest rate on savers and local investors by both attracting savings mobilization and encouraging domestic investment. Other studies have assessed the impact of domestic exchange rates on export performance of the agricultural sector. These studies have however produced mixed results. Some show that performance of a country’s exports is highly dependent on its exchange rate regime, specifically the real exchange rate, while others do not. The majority of the studies that have observed the dependence of agricultural exports on domestic exchange rate show that the demand for a country’s exports increases when its export prices fall in relation to the world prices, that is, when the domestic currency depreciates against major world currencies . In contrast, an investigation of the impact of trade liberalization on export volumes by  in Uganda found no significant relationship between real exchange rate and volumes of exports. To investigate the factors that influence supply of Zambia’s flower exports to the three main export destinations—the UK, the Netherlands and Germany an error correction model  of flower exports, which incorporates both demand and supply factors, was used. Many authors have noted the increased importance of ECM and co-integration methods in analyses that attempt to describe long and short-run equilibrium relationships simultaneously . According to  and , an equilibrium relationship exists when variables in the model are co-integrated . A pre-condition for integration, however, is that the data for each variable involved exhibit similar statistical properties, that is, are integrated to the same order with evidence of some linear combination of the integrated series .

The order of integration ascertains the number of times a variable will be differenced to arrive at stationarity . A stationary series has a mean, variance, and auto-correlation that are constant over time . The inspection of the order of integration of variables allows the ECM estimation procedure to thoroughly examine the characteristic of time series, helping overcome the problem of spurious or meaningless regression results often associated with nonstationary historical data . According to  and , treating nonstationary series as if they were stationary produces biased OLS results, resulting in misleading economic analysis. The results demonstrate that Zambia’s flower exports are positively influenced by domestic production, GDP and population of importing countries, producer prices, export credit and exchange rate depreciation. For instance, the positive coefficients for real exchange of 0.1413, 0.0267 and 0.1052 indicates that a 1 percent increase in exchange rate  increased flower exports to Germany, the UK and the Netherlands by about 0.14, 0.03 and 0.11 percent, respectively. The regression results also show that increases in exports from competing countries, domestic cereal production and interest rates negatively influenced flower exports. The percentage decrease in the quantity of the flower exports to the three main destination countries attributed to a percentage increase in each of the three variables is indicated by the negative coefficient for the respective covariates . Lastly, the coefficients for the error correction term show that there was 98, 10, and 48 percent feedback in the estimated ECMs of flower exports to Germany, the UK and the Netherlands, respectively, from the previous year disequilibrium into the short-run dynamic process. The significant error correction terms in the models confirm the proposed relationship between flower exports to the three countries under study, and the variables considered in the models. Table 7 present results for the ECM which evaluated the impact of the covariates on competitiveness. The R2 of 0.7406 indicates that the estimated relationship explained 74.06 percent of the total variation in the competitiveness of flower exports. In addition, all diagnostic tests  show that there was no autocorrelation, the chief source of biasedness in time series analyses. Overall, the findings indicate that flower production, prices and exchange rate depreciation positively impacted while cereal production, export credit and interest rates negatively impacted competitiveness of flower exports. Following Monke and Pearson ,  a reduction in domestic resource cost  indicates an improvement in competitiveness. Finally, the significant coefficient of −0.0366 for the correction term implies that there was 3.7% feedback in the competitiveness adjustment model from the previous year disequilibrium into the short-run dynamic process. On the whole, our results in the two sets of models conform to both our prior expectations and findings by other empirical studies. The positive impact of domestic flower production on flower export supply and competitiveness is consistent with  suggesting, in part, that if interventions are to achieve increased flower exports; they should among other things, first increase domestic flower production. According to grow bucket, increasing farm production improves competitiveness and efficiency of the farm sector since fixed costs per unit output decrease as output increase due to economies of scale. Therefore, the decline of flower exports from 2006 onwards did not just result in reduced export revenues but equally resulted in high overhead costs causing a reduction in competitiveness. The positive effect of real GDP and population of importing countries on Zambia’s flower exports too conform to other studies which also found economic growth and population increase in foreign markets critical in stimulating a country’s agricultural export supply and competitiveness.

Explicitly, the result implies that economic and population growth in foreign markets increases demand for a country’s agricultural exports suggesting that the decline of the horticultural industry from 2006 onwards could be partly attributed to the poor performance of the global economy during the same period. Both  and  found GDP and population growth in importing countries to increase agricultural exports. In addition, conforming too to our findings,  found agricultural export credit to have significant positive influence on the volume of Cameroon’s agricultural exports while  and  found world producer prices to positively impact agricultural exports in Nigeria and South Africa, respectively. Drawing on this result, it could be equally deduced that the significant decline in investments to the industry following the bankruptcy of the largest horticultural firm, Agriflora, in 2004 largely contributed to the slump the industry continued to record thereafter. Besides, the result recognizes the fragility of the horticulture industry in the country suggesting the need for appropriate, broad-based policy support to ensure sustainability and growth of the industry. Conversely, most studies have consistently found a negative relationship between subsidized credit, like in our case, and agricultural competitiveness . Particularly, the negative relationship between subsidized credit and flower competitiveness seem to suggest that while the subsidized credit managed to increase output in the shortrun, it failed to sustain the high production recorded in the earlier years of the EU’s Export Development Project  due to resource constraints that followed after the project concluded. Similarly,  also found exports from competing countries to reduce Nigeria’s major agricultural exports implying that in addition to increasing production, the replacement of Zambia’s flower exports to the three principal countries by those from other countries dictate that there must be a quality improvement so the country’s exports can compete favorably with those from other countries. Furthermore, our results on interest and exchange rates in both export and competiveness models are comparable with those of . The authors also found high domestic interest rates and appreciation of the local currencies to reduce both volume and competitiveness of agricultural exports. The results therefore suggest that the significant appreciation of the Zambian currency during the late 2000s contributed substantially to the decline of the horticultural industry during the same time period. The observed negative impact on supply and competitiveness of flower export due to the appreciation of the local currency could be attributed to the loss of export revenue among exporting producers arising from the increase in value of the domestic currency relative to the major world currencies such as the US Dollar and Euro . The result could equally be attributed to the decline in competiveness in the international markets because of high export prices for commodities that arise following an increase in the relative value of a country’s currency . On the other hand, the negative impact of interest rates on exports and competitiveness is particularly attributed to the resultant high cost of capital, mainly credit, which makes it difficult for smallholders, especially resource poor ones, to adopt modern and yield enhancing technologies for increased agricultural exports . According to , the area devoted to cut flowers and fresh vegetables in Zambia has stagnated at 140 hectares, compared to Kenya’s over a million hectares, because of high lending rates  that prohibit most people from venturing into horticulture production.

Global Horticulture Market Outlook 2015 projects that horticulture industry plays vital role in the future. The globe has initiated measures to support this industry. In 2011, global fruits and vegetables production were 548 million tonnes and 990 million tonnes respectively. And the global floriculture industry size was around USD 109 billion . Globalization has witnessed the focus on integration of developing country firms geographically with PAN world with supply networks or commoditychains. These global supply chain linkages help to connect developing countries’ firms with developed countries’ suppliers and customers. Gereffi  , emphasises not only that independent companies in different countries are linked together in trading relationships, but also that the chain should be considered as a network governed to a large extent by key agents within it.

In Brazil, the amount of pesticides consumed doubled in the last 10 years, thus, in 2008 Brazil assumed the lead position in the world. In 2011, the country used over 852.8 million liters of pesticide . Its indiscriminate application in agriculture without the use of the necessary care has contributed to environmental degradation and increased occupational exposures making it a serious health problem in the country. According to the data of the National System of Toxic-Pharmacological Information  in 2010, there were 10,269 cases of pesticide poisoning in general, of which, 1,347 were caused by occupational circumstances. It is observed that there is a large underreporting of adverse effects, especially longterm, which can determine chronic diseases.Chronic exposures to these pesticides affect the auditory system at the central and peripheral levels, regardless of exposures concomitant to noise . Ototoxicity can be defined as the result of the action of certain chemicals that injure the anterior/posterior maze, leading to auditory loss with or without vertigo, nausea and gait instability, and should be studied and considered as a public health problem . The auditory loss caused by pesticides may occur insidiously or not and its severity will depend on factors such as the amount, the time of exposure and the interaction with the ototoxic agent. Usually this loss occurs symmetrically bilateral. The symptoms resulting in vestibular alterations are dizziness and vertigo, which may appear early and more intensely than the auditory . In Brazil there are few studies that report the association between exposure to pesticides and auditory alterations, but all authors concord with the relationship . Studies made a comparison between exposure to pesticides and noise with hearing loss, and most came to the conclusion that there is evidence that chemicals can lead to hearing loss regardless of the presence of noise . 

Minas Gerais is one of the largest producers of coffee in Brazil . Research conducted involving farmers in the state showed that most use organophosphates and pyrethoids . In the region of Caratinga, located in east Minas Gerais, studies indicate the use of more than 39 types of pesticides in tomato culture , being mostly the chemical class of organophosphates and pyrethroids  Piedade de Caratinga County, located in east Minas Gerais relies on agriculture as one of the main economic activities, coffee being the most anticipated,hydroponic gutter and in the dry season the coffee producers become olericulture . Because this region is predominantly agricultural with extensive use of pesticides, especially organophosphates and pyrethroids, both in cultivation of coffee and tomato, this study sought to evaluate the auditory health and risk factors in rural workers exposed to pesticides in Piedade de Caratinga County, MG, and chart their socioeconomic profile and lifestyle, while identifying the types of crops and the use and management of pesticides.First, This is a descriptive and exploratory research with quantitative and qualitative approach to the “basic purpose to develop, clarify and modify concepts and ideas for the design of further approaches” . The study was conducted from January to June 2013, in the rural area of the municipality of Piedade de Caratingalocated in east Minas Gerais, in the middle region Vale do Rio Doce, belonging to the micro-region of Caratinga—Minas Gerais. It has a land area of 42,5127.96 mi2, population of 7,110 inhabitants, altitude 874.89 yds., average temperature of 68˚F in winter and 84.2˚F in the summer. The topography is smooth and the street layout is in bottom of the valley. Coffee production is the main economic activity due to the altitude and mild climate. During the dry season of these products, the producers become olericultures, that follow to the municipalities in the region and Belo Horizonte . Rural workers, whose main activity is spraying pesticides in cultures and who attended the audiometric examination beyond the delivery of the questionnaire and explained signed informed consents, were selected. Exclusion criteria have the use of heavy machines that emit noises, changes in meatoscopy and age above 50 years. Thus, the final sample was selected as a matter of convenience and had 23 men, rural workers, who fulfilled the principle of inclusion and exclusion established. The absence of women in the study sample was not criterion of intentional exclusion of the authors of this research. But an absence of this kind was justified by the fact that, when determining the sample was intended to initially work with the number of rural workers who were representative for the population of these rural areas under study. However, when making contact with the owners of larger farms, they did not allow the development of the project.

We then decided to work with small farmers who were self-employed, and whose women did not participate in the work with the crop, and were responsible for animal care and the home. The audiometric tests were performed in acoustic cabins, using clinical audiometer BETA 6000 – Beta Medical, calibrated according to standard methods. The professional responsible for them was a properly qualified speech therapist and registered in its class organ. In testing the therapist had no prior knowledge of the type of previous exposure of each individual. The audiogram of each rural worker was issued under ASHA . A semi-structured interview was conducted using questionnaires adapted from the study of Kos , in which data were obtained on socioeconomic and lifestyle profile, types of crops, use and management of pesticidesauditory signs and clinical symptoms. The following information was considered: age, gender, education level, monthly income, smoking and alcohol consumption. In relation to the types of crops, the data of the use and management of pesticides was collected about working hours, daily working periods, type of cultivation, types of chemicals for agricultural use utilized, equipment used to apply the product, contact with pesticides, knowledge of the risks of pesticides to human health, guidance on the risks at work, type of information about these risks, training on first aid, packaging disposal and use of personal protective equipment , who conducted the training, use of PPE to handle the products, which PPE were used, if after the use of pesticides any specific hygiene routine was implemented and what they were. To understand the possible effects of the chronic use of pesticides on the health of rural workers, a questionnaire that consisted of questions concerning: incidence of poisoning by pesticides, tinnitus, dizziness presented during or after contact with pesticides and the presence of otorrhea and earache was used. The otoscopy was performed in all rural workers to check the integrity of the pinna and ears as to the existence of injury such as obstruction of the external auditory meatus, perforated eardrum and hearing of non-occupational origin. Those who submit any such changes would be excluded from research. Data was analyzed employing descriptive and inferential statistics. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 11.0. Quantitative variables were described by mean and standard deviation. The results were presented in tables. To determine the association between the qualitative variables in the study, we used the chi-square test. The significance level was 5%, where significant values of p ≤ 0.05 were considered. All received information related to the research and later signed the Consent and Informed Agreement  according to Resolution No. 196 of October 10, 1996 of the National Health Council , involving research on human subjects. The project was submitted to the Ethics Committee of Caratinga University Center where he received permission for the study was conducted.

In order to trace the socioeconomic profile and lifestyle sample in the study, the parameters whose results are in Table 1, hydroponic nft channel were considered. Define According to the data reported in Table 2, the study population was composed of individuals with a mean age of 36.7 ± 9.3 years, only for males. Regarding education, 69.6% attended elementary school from 1st to 5th grade; 21.7% reported having attended 6th to 9th grade and 8.7% attended high school. When asked about the monthly income, 60.9% said they receive a minimum wage per month; 21.7% receive less than the minimum wage; 17.4% receive between two and three monthly salaries. Considering aspects relative to the use and management of pesticides and in view of the working time in coffee and tomato plantations, 8.7% reported that they worked less than three years; 13.0% from 3.1 to 5 years; 8.7% 5.1 to 10 years; 26.1% from 10.1 to 15 years; 43.5% more than fifteen years . When asked about smoking habits, 30.4% said they smoke; 69.6% reported that they did not. In regards to consumption of alcohol, 52.8% said they consume alcohol; 47.8% do not consume alcohol. Regarding the daily working period, 8.7% work six hours a day; 56.5% eight hours; 17.4% ten o’clock; 8.7% twelve hours and other remaining 8.7% could not inform about the time spent at work . An important factor for the increased risk of exposure to pesticides refers to the use and handling of these products, Table 2 reported the findings relating to the variables that characterize this practice. As recorded in Table 2 and considering the type of existing agriculture in rural Piedade de Caratinga, it was found that 43.5% of the crops are tomatoes; 30.4% coffee; 13% culture both  and 47.8% other types of crops ranging from vegetables and fruits. Technical analysis about the type of agricultural defense used in coffee, tomato and other crop cultivation, there are a series of pesticides used, listed as follows: Roundup®  whose toxicological classification is III, Manzate®  toxicological class I, Vertimec®  belonging to class III, Meothrin®  followed by Tamaron®  with extremely toxic type I toxicology . For the application of these pesticides it is necessary to use their own equipment, these workers were asked about what equipment they used. The results of the answers are shown in Table 2, where it is possible to verify that 13% use the bar and hose sprayer for application in the crops; 69.6% manual knapsack sprayer; 13% use the mechanized knapsack sprayer; 26.1% use the stationary spray with motor and another 4.3% use of another form of application. Regarding the handling of pesticides, the question was asked about how contact with the product would be. 78.3% said that the only contact had with the pesticide would be when it is applied; 73.9% in the preparation of the solution; 52.2% during the cleaning of the equipment and utensils; 52.2% during transportation and storage; and 30.4% said that contact with pesticide is had when entering a crop soon after application . According to Table 2 in regards to the use of some kind of personal protective equipment  39.1% said they use; 39.1% said they did not use and 21.7% reported that they sometimes use it. When asked if they received any guidance on the risks that this type of work with pesticides could cause, 65.2% answered that yes, they received information about the risk inherent to this type of work and 34.8% reported that they received no guidance about the real risks of handling pesticides.Still about this same matter, workers were asked who passed these guidelines to them, 80% said that friends, family and other people guided them and 20% that neighbors were responsible for keeping them informed. Regarding first-aid training, disposal of pesticide containers and PPE, 21.7% said they received training and 78.3% did not . Regarding the use of PPE for the application of the product in crops, 43.5% said that they use protection adequately, 34.8% do not use PPE and 21.7% that they sometimes use it. Still related to this topic, they were asked about which PPE they used to avoid direct contact with pesticides, 69.6% said they use boots for prevention; 43.5% gloves; 39.1% hats; 26.1% impermeable clothing; 56.5% chemical masks and 8.7% reported using other forms of protection .

Considering the data in Table 2, in relation to the hygiene procedures soon after application of pesticides, 82.6% said that they performed a hygiene routine and 17.4% did not. When asked about what specific hygiene habits they adopted; 87% answered that they wash their hands and face every time they deal with a pesticide; 91.3% who take a complete bath after working with pesticides; 69.6% change clothes right after using these products and 65.2% said they avoid eating or smoking during the application of these products. The routine use of these harmful pesticides is harmful to health, it was asked if some of these workers showed some type of intoxication, 30.4% said they already showed signs of intoxication and 69.6% have never had such signs. The last question of this questionnaire, was about if soon after the application of pesticides, there was some sign or symptom relative to the use of these products; 21.7% said they felt dizzy; 26.1% had difficulty hearing; 21.7% lack balance; 30.4% nausea; 34.8% felt congestion in ear; 13% vomiting; 34.8% ringing in the ears; 8.7% tearing and ear pain; 21.7% no symptoms and 43.5% presented other types of signs and symptoms.

As one endproduct of the pathway has been elevated, it may well be that other related compounds, including the flavonols, are also found in higher concentrations. Roman lettuce is richer in lutein than head lettuces; and leafy and roman lettuces are richer in quercetin. The Cucurbitaceae family  is rich in vitamin C, carotenoids, and tocopherols. Burger et al. in a survey of 350 melon accessions from different horticultural groups of Cucurbita melo observed a 50-fold variation in ascorbic acid content, ranging from 0.7 mg to 35.3 mg/100g of fresh fruit weight. Ascorbic acid and β-carotene content ranged from 7.0 to 32.0 mg/100g and 4.7 to 62.2 μg/100g, respectively in sweet melons.Diet is the primary therapy for this type of diabetes and bitter gourd is particularly critical when pharmaceuticals are not available, as happens in a great part of the developing world. The Chenopodiaceae family  is an excellent source of folate and have been shown to inhibit DNA synthesis in proliferating human gastric adenocarcinoma cells. The Chenopodiaceae vegetables are also among the most oxalate dense vegetables. When oxalates become too concentrated in body fluids, they can crystallize and cause health problems such as kidney calcium oxalate stones. All the legumes , mature and imature seeds are good sources of dietary fiber and isoflavonoids. Mallillin et al. determined the total, soluble and insoluble fibre and fermentability characteristics of ten legumes mature seeds  and concluded that the dietary fibre content ranged from 20.9 to 46.9 g/100g and that the best sources after in vitro fermentation using human faecal inoculum stimulating conditions in the human collon  were pole sitao and mungbean , kidney bean and pigeon pea, , and peanut and cowpea . High-flavonol legumes include sugar snap peas and mange-tout, which were found to contain 98 and 145 µg quercetin/g respectively. Some legumes are also rich in iron. Trinidad et al. determined the mineral availability in vitro of iron, zinc and calcium in ten local legumes .

They found that the highest iron availability among legumes was for lima bean and mung bean while for zinc and calcium, the highest availability was for kidney beans and pigeon peas, respectively. Groundnuts have the lowest Fe , Zn and Ca availability. They concluded that mineral availability of Fe, Zn, and Ca from legumes differs and may be attributed to their mineral content, grow table hydroponic mineral-mineral interaction and from their phytic and tannic acid content. For example mungbean  either eaten as whole pod grains or grown to produce bean sprouts, is an important source of iron for women and children throughout South Asia. In this section we will highlight the health benefits of the most studied and consumed vegetables namely crucifer, allium and solanaceous vegetables. Cruciferous vegetables  which include, cabbage, brocolli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kales, kailan, chinese cabbage, turnip, rutabaga, radish, horseradish, rocket, watercress, mustards, among other vegetables, provide the richest sources of glucosenolates in the human diet. Most consumers associate cruciferous vegetable consumption with health. They have reasons for that because based on one of the largest and most detailed reviews of diet and cancer, the World Cancer Research Fund in USA concluded that a diet rich in crucifers is likely to protect humans against colon, rectum, and thyroid cancers, and when consumed with vegetables rich in other phytonutriceuticals, can protect against cancer in other organs. Crucifers rich in glucosenolates including broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and kale have been shown to protect against lung, prostate cancer, breast cancer, and chemically induced cancers. Epidemiological data show that a diet rich in crucifers can reduce the risk from several types of cancers and that the risk can be significantly reduced by an intake of at least 10 g per day. Epidemiological studies have suggested that diets rich in broccoli, may reduce the risk of prostate cancer, and consumption of one or more portions of broccoli per week can reduce the incidence and the progression from localized to aggressive forms of prostrate cancer. The overwhelming evidence concerning the anticarcinogenic effect of phytonutriceuticals in crucifers were from in vivo studies, mainly with broccoli, using animal models and human Volunteers.

In order to establish the relationship between whole broccoli and cancer prevention, Farnham et al. examined the diversity of induction of the phase II detoxification enzyme quinone reductase, in murine hepatoma cells, by 71 inbred and 5 hybrid lines of broccoli. They found that the rate of induction of quinone reductase in hepa 1c1c7 by the broccoli inbred lines ranged from 0 to 15,000 units and that the rate of induction was highly correlated  to the concentration of glucoraphanin in each broccoli inbred. These results suggest that there are significant differences in the health benefits among crucifers, which is important not only from a health point of view, but also as a marketing tool to promote a certain cultivar. Comparative studies of glucosenolate profiles indicate significant quantitative and quailtative differences among accessions within each crucifer, between plant parts, developmental stage, agronomic management, and climatic conditions. Kushad et al. observed in 65 cultivars of brocolli, that glucoraphanin was the major glucosinolate and that there was more than 27-fold difference between the highest concentration in cultivar “Brigadier” and the lowest concentration in cultivar “EV6-1”. Hansen et al. also observed in their study with 21 cultivars of red cabbage and 6 white cabbages, that there was a considerable variation in the concentration of the individual glucosenolates between the cultivars examined. Red cabbage cultivars were found to contain significantly higher concentrations of glucoraphanin compared to white cabbage cultivars. There were also significant differences within the red cabbage cultivars. Of the red cultivars examined “Rodima” had the highest concentration with 7.4 mg/g DW glucoraphanin whereas “Primero” has the lowest concentration containing only 0.6 mg/g DW. The white cabbage cultivars contained significantly higher levels of glucoiberin compared to red cultivars. The white cabbage cultivar “Bartolo” contained the highest level of 7.4 mg/g dry weight, whereas the cultivar “Candela” had the lowest level of 1.7 mg/g dry weight. The red cultivars ranged from approximately 3 mg/g dry weight to 0.3 mg/g dry weight. The red cabbages were also found to contain significantly higher concentration of gluconasturtiin compared to white cabbage cultivars. The cultivar “Amager Garo” had the highest concentration whereas “Primero” had the lowest, 1 and 0.1 mg/g dry weight, respectively. Similar differences were also observed in turnip and rutabagas. Fahey et al. evaluated glucosinolate content of broccoli sprouts and found that they contain nearly 20- to 50-fold higher glucosinolates than tissue from mature plants. In broccoli heads, the most significant glucosinolates are glucoraphanin, glucobrassicin, progoitrin, and gluconasturtiin. In cabbage, Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, kale, tronchuda and collard the predominant glucosinolates are sinigrin, progoitrin, and glucobrassicin.

In turnip and rutabagas, the predominant glucosenolates are glucoerucin, glucoraphanin, and glucobrassicin. In radish, the predominant glucosinolates are glucoerucin, glucoraphanin, and glucobrassicin. Each of these crucifers also contain smaller amounts of other glucosinolates. The bulk of the differences in the aliphatic glucosinolates is genetically regulated. Differences in the indol glucosinolates, in contrast to aliphatic glucosinolates, have been attributed to environmental factors. Even though the glucosinolate content is influenced by environmental conditions the effect of genotype is found to be greater than that of environ- mental factors. Crucifer vegetables are also rich in vitamins, with kale rated as the second highest among 22 vegetables tested. Brussels sprouts and broccoli were also ranked high in their vitamin content containing significant amounts of vitamins C and E, and β-carotene. Evaluation of α- and β-, α-, and γ-tocopherols, and vitamin C in broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, tronchuda, and kale, showed significant variations between and within these crucifers. Vitamin C is the most abundant vitamin in all five crucifers tested. Kale had the highest amount of these vitamins, followed by broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower. Analysis indicated that 79% of β-carotene, 82% of α-tocopherol, and 55% of vitamin C variability in broccoli were associated with genetic factors. Crucifers are also excellent source of folate. Brussels sprouts and broccoli were ranked among the highest vegetable sources for folate, contributing about 110 to 135 and 70 to 90 μg/100 g, respectively. Crucifers also contain significant amounts of dietary fiber. Dietary fiber content of cauliflower was estimated to be about 5% of the total fresh weight or about 50% of the total dry weight, consisting of about 40% nonstarch polysaccharides. Cellulose and lignin concentrations in Brussels sprouts were estimated to be 36% and 14.5%, while in cauliflower they were estimated to be about 16% and 13% of the total dry matter, respectively. There are plenty of crucifers  that are good sources of calcium. Galega kale contains a high content of protein, fiber, calcium, and sulfur when compared to broccoli,grow table the reference within Brassica vegetables. Crucifers are capable of accumulating substantial amounts of selenium when grown on high-selenium soil. Banuelos and Meek reported that broccoli grown on selenium enriched soil accumulated sevenfold more selenium than cabbage, collards and Swiss chard. Broccoli plants grown outdoors on a sphagnum, peatmoss, and vermiculite medium and fertilized with sodium-selenate and selenite accumulated 278 mg/g dry weight selenium, in the edible florets, compared to the nonfertilized control, which accumulated only 0.13 mg/g dry weight. In broccoli, selenium is stored as selenocysteine, which is readily absorved by human tissue. Selenium-enriched broccoli has been found to reduce colon cancer and mammary tumors in animal models. Cabbage sprouts and fully developed heads also accumulated selenium and the accumulation was higher in the sprouts than in the mature heads. Other antioxidants in crucifers include flavonoids. Miean and Mohamed examined the flavonoid content of 62 vegetables and found that broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, chinese cabbage, and kailan contained between 148 and 219 mg/kg of flavonoids. Broccoli contained myricetin, quercetin, and luteolin; cauliflower contained myricetin and quercetin; kailan contained quercetin and apigenin; while cabbage contained only myricetin. In a similar study, Hertog et al. evaluated the methanolextracted flavonoids from 28 vegetables and found that quercetin levels, in the edible part of most vegetables, were below 10 mg/kg, except in kale , broccoli , and onion . Kale, broccoli and turnip contained 211, 72, and 48 mg/kg of kaempferol, respectively.

Kaempferol had also been detected in cabbage leaves, but Miean and Moamed did not detect kaempferol in any of the tested crucifer vegetables. Alliums vegetables  include, garlic, onion, leek, chive, Welsh onion, among other vegetables. They are rich in a wide variety of thiosulfides, which have been linked to reducing various chronic diseases. Similar to glucosinolates in crucifers, the types and amounts of thiosulfides in alliums vary significantly. Typically, they contain 1% to 5% nonprotein sulfur compounds, on a dry weight basis. Kubec et al. reported significantly variability in the total thiosulfide  content and in the relative proportion of these compounds between and within alliums, even when grown under identical conditions. Theyfound that the total thiosulfide contents in green onion leaves, chive, and onion bulb were 0.2, 0.72, and 1.02 g/kg fresh weight, respectively. The type of thiosulphides in these vegetables were also variable. For example onion bulbs contained 34% methiin, 5% ethiin, 6% propiin, 5% alliin, and 49% isoalliin, while garlic cloves contained about 92% alliin, 8% methiin, and trace amounts of ethiin, propiin, and isoalliin. The second most important group of phytonutriceuticals in alliums are flavonoids. Two types of flavonoids are found in onion bulbs: anthocyanins in red onions and flavonols like quercetin and kaempferol in most yellow fresh cultivars. Miean and Mohamed reported that onion leaves had the highest total flavonoid content among 62 different vegetables they tested and that total flavonoid content of onion leaves and garlic were about 2.7 and 1.0 g/kg dry weight, respectively. In onion leaves, about 55% of the total flavonoids is quercetin, 31% kaempferol, and 14% luteolin. In onion bulb, more than 95% of the flavonoids is quercetin and only a trace amount of kaempferol. White onion cultivars were reported to have significantly less quercetin than the red ones and most of the quercetin is present in the outer scales. Red onions contained approximately 1350 µg/g fresh weight of total flavonols and white onions contained only 10 µg/g.

The overall gender profile of participants skewed towards male participants in both farm sizes and across the three commodities with only 25% and 38% female participants from mango and avocado farming systems respectively and no female macadamia farmers . Results indicated that a higher proportion  of all participants were from the age group 51 years and above. This profile was skewed towards small-scale farmers with only 21% of large-scale farmers in this dominant age group and 5.2% who were between 36 – 50 years old. Male farmers represent a larger percentage in this study compared to their female counterparts which is in line with the gender findings of other studies conducted in the Vhembe district and is attributed to cultural norms and values of the Vhenda people from the area. Age distribution results suggest an aging population of farmers within the two main farming systems in the Vhembe district possibly explained by youth having less interest in agricultural activities as they see it as older people’s occupation resultantly creating a disparity of farming knowledge and interest between youth and the elderly.Over half  of participants in the study described the topographic location of the farm as mountainous compared to 47% who said the land was flat. A small proportion  identified the land as being located in a valley. Macadamia farms were commonly located on mountainous locations while mango farms were located in either flat or partly flat locations or avocado farms in either partly flat or mountainous locations. More small-scale farmers  described the topography of the farm as mountainous compared to 15% of large-scale farmers across all commodities.A higher proportion of all participants described the soil as either sandy or loam, 11% described it as clay and a small proportion used other descriptions such as the soil classification name e.g., Hutton or “slippery”. With regard to soil colour, the most common colours identified were red and dark brown , participants also referred to greyish-white and other . Loamy, red soil was the dominant description amongst macadamia farmers. Mango farmers mostly described the soil as sandy and either red or dark-brown. Avocado farmers described the soil as sandy and red in colour.

Responses revealed that large and small-scale farmers made used of various services e.g., specialist soil analysis facilities, the local Department of Agriculture and the local agriculture college to periodically conduct detailed soil analyses.There was no correlation between soil type and average gross annual income and a positive but non-significant correlation between AGAI and soil colour . According to farming on steep slopes is a cause for concern because of the threat of gradual erosion and leaching of nutrients which will enhance land degradation therefore compromising the sustainability of the farming systems. The Vhembe district is made up of complex topography driven by its geomorphology,mobile vertical grow tables it is characterized by the Soutpansberg “Salt Pan Mountain”, which is predominantly quarzitic. Small-scale farmers who occupy mountainous areas in the Vhembe district are allocated this land by the local chief generally as a result of insufficient land in the valleys. The chiefs use their own discretion which is at times influenced by favouritism . Despite farming on steep slopes some of the farmers on this kind of land claim they are able to produce good quality produce which can be attributed to other land characteristics and management practices. Soil colour and soil type can indicate soil fertility. Soil fertility within a farm size can be used to measure production levels and therefore sustainability because it is a limiting factor of production. According to the land type surveys for the Vhembe district issued to the researcher by the ISCW for the period 1973-2004 , the broad description of the soil pattern found in the area is red, freely drained soils with low to intermediate base status. The dominant soil is Hutton  which is characterized as deep. The soil form description for Hutton according to the ISCW is red-brown to brown topsoil overlying freely drained, red apedal soil material. The soil series description is described as medium base status, clay loam to clay textured subsoil; high base status , clay loam to clay. Other soils that characterize the area in which the study falls  are: Streambeds, Valsrivier, Shortlands, Katspruit, Glenrosa. In terms of the commodities, all soils in the district are suitable for production of these crops. Macadamia nuts prefer well drained soils; as a result, most soil types can be regarded as suitable for macadamia production provided, they are well drained without restrictive layers in the top 1 m of the soil. According to Hutton soils are described as an optimal soil type suitable for mango cultivation both under irrigation and dry land cultivation. Avocados prefer deep soil which is well drained as a requirement. With regard to colour, indicate that only reddish-brown, red and dark-brown soils, particularly in the subsoil, are suitable for avocado growth. All of the above requirements match the characteristics of Hutton soil.Based on the coefficient of variation at the 3 weather stations over the 10 years  there was a distinct difference in the CV across the stations with Makwarela having the lowest CV  and a sharp increase to 45% and 50% at Mutale and Malamulele respectively. This showed that there is extremely high variability within the months between the years at Mutale and Malamulele while the rainfall at Makwarela was relatively more reliable. High variability in rainfall amount between years can limit growth. The total monthly rainfall distribution at all 3  indicates thatmost of the annual rainfall comes during the months of September to March. This can be generalized as the wet summer season. The peak rainfall is from December to January/February with rainfall declining significantly after April. Very little rainfall, if none at all, is received between May and August. This can be generalised as the dry, winter season.

The main source of water on farms was rivers , dams , boreholes  and tanks.The use of pipes was the most common form of irrigation identified amongst all participants in the study followed by rain-fed and jet irrigation.Pipes for water reticulation were commonly used by small-scale macadamia and avocado farmers compared to jet irrigation e.g., micro-jet and jet spray irrigation systems were commonly used by a few large-scale macadamia and avocado farmers. Farmers in the Vhembe district who irrigate get higher incomes from on-farm activities as opposed to dry-land farmers due to higher yields. Access to water for irrigation is considered a macro constraint for smallholder farmers in the Vhembe district according to. These farmers are often victims of water shortages and irrigation politics.Theft, of the crop, is the biggest threat, particularly for mango and avocado farmers . This is exacerbated in small-scale farms  due to the lack of fencing. The second most common threat across both small and large-scale farms is diseases and pests. Farmers referred to integrated pest management which they understand as a combination of multiple techniques to prevent pests or their damage as an approach to pest control.The data used to plot Figures 8-11 are presented in Table 3. Results of the Pearson Correlation analysis showed there was a weak positive and statistically significant correlation between farm size and yield amongst macadamia farmers, a strong negative correlation amongst mango farmers and strong negative correlation amongst avocado farmers. Yield results with respect to commodity and farm size reveal that farm size does not always correlate to high yields as can be seen amongst some large-scale mango and avocado farms. This suggests that farm size alone cannot guarantee a high yield and there is need to consider a broader range of aspects. Increases in yield per unit area will require more investment into issues of soil fertility management, soil and water conservation, pest and disease control and technology usage amongst others.The data used to plot Figure 12 are presented in Table 3. The average gross annual income from farming amongst participants ranged between R5000 and R40 million across the three commodities. Results revealed that macadamia farmers obtained the highest farming incomes, in both large-scale farms, average of R25,100,000, and small-scale, average of R120,000 compared to avocado, average of R20,075,000 amongst large-scale farmers and R22,500 amongst small-scale farmers, and mango, R20,000 for the large-scale farmer and an average of R57,333 amongst small-scale farmers, farmers.  Results of the Pearson Correlations analysis show that there is a positive statistically significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst macadamia farmers , a positive significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst mango farmers and a strong positive significant correlation between AGAI and farm size amongst avocado farmers.This discussion will relate the various results to each other and to the overall understanding of these results on the sustainability of the systems. The results showed that males were mostly responsible for the farming activities and this may have a negative impact on sustainability of the farming systems in the future because demographic statistics show that female numbers are growing more quickly than male numbers. The age of active farmers was mostly above 51.

According to in most rural smallholder communities in the Limpopo Province, the youth often leave the farm lands in the rural areas to seek employment in the towns; this may pose a threat to sustainability as there will not be enough farmers with suitable agricultural experience to continue the cultivation of HVCs in future. It is proposed by that secure land tenure is a necessary pre-condition for the adoption of long-term sustainability of farming practices which characterizes sustainable farming systems. Results of the study do not support this theory as the majority of the farmers farm on communal land. If there were significant changes in land tenure policy in the Vhembe district, this would make the area vulnerable in terms of sustainability of the farming systems for both farm sizes. This is highly plausible, in the future, as land reform remains a pressing and controversial issue in the South African political context. The agronomic conditions for crop cultivation are mostly suitable with respect to the inherent soil fertility, however, fertilizer inputs are low due to high prices. The three areas studied receive differing amounts of rainfall, two areas are in the 650 mm range and the other area receives about 1020 mm. However, the CV of annual amount is much larger in the areas with the lower amounts of rainfall making these areas more vulnerable which may result in non-sustainable production conditions. According to the adverse effects of climate change on agricultural productivity in South Africa are on the increase. These include rainfall decreases amongst others. Future decreases in rainfall will make farms that are completely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, such as the mango farmers in the study, vulnerable in terms of sustainability. The challenges of theft, pests and diseases pose a threat to production and sustainability of the farming systems as lower incomes from farming can be expected as a result of low yields. This will negatively impact on farmers’ ability to finance farm operations. Land is a finite resource that cannot be increased indefinitely. Efforts to increase yields therefore need to target changes in land management, which should incorporate a range of considerations such as training, the incorporation of organic farming practices such as those suggested by Dassou et al. , access to finance, mobile vertical farm the use of higher inputs and changed technologies. According to annual tree-crop income amongst smallholder farmers in the Vhembe district, although still very limited, constitutes the main agricultural income. In the few cases that there is additional income from non-tree crops, it is generated from a wide range of vegetable crops and contributes a very small share of agricultural income. The same author asserts that non-tree crops, mostly vegetables, are primarily responsible for the agricultural income and are perceived to be a short-term strategy for income generation whilst waiting for tree-crops to reach maturity. This serves as a sustainable farming practice that can facilitate sustainable farming systems for small-scale farmers. Macadamia nuts is the fastest growing tree crop industry in the country and their production is lucrative.

Agricultural development has been affected by natural climate variability and extreme climate events which have caused significant decline in productivity resulting in food insecurity and poverty among rural communities. Precipitation changes are currently insufficient for many crops that water scarcity increasingly con- strains production . Analyses conducted by the Nigerian Meteorological Agency , have found that drought disasters are significantly more probable in re- cent times . While droughts are frequent, the rate of growth in agriculture has been one of the slowest in terms of production and productivity . The pressure also includes the intensified use of more fragile land re- sources, leading to accelerated degradation of the soil to desert-like conditions, thereby reducing sustainable agricultural production . Today, Nigeria has less than 9% of the total cropped area under irrigation. Hence, the rural population is very vulnerable to rainfall fluctuations. Despite the economic hardship and the prolonged effects of drought and desertification, the people in the drought prone areas of northern Nigeria possess great reliance, patience, and adaptive capacity . Environmental de- gradation caused by successive years of poor rainfall amount/distribution and recurrent droughts is exacerbated by combined effects of natural population growth and immigration from neighboring resource-poorer countries. In this study we focused on the vast traditional knowledge of the farmers on rainfall prediction and their understanding of its reliability through their observation, experience and practice in the field. Understanding them is not only necessary to communicate the scientific fore- cast, since it is learnt and identified by farmers within a cultural context and the knowledge base which follows specific language, belief and process. By perceiving such a knowledge base, it may facilitates social interaction and promote acceptance of scientific forecast among the farmers.  

The South American Andes are rife with environmental problems related to human activities in fragile eco-systems. Andean populations are among the poorest in South America and often depend on rain-fed agriculture. The Andes form the headwaters of many of the great river systems of South America, and runoff and agriculture-related pollution can have negative consequences far from their sources. Humans are encroaching into fragile high plains as population pressures at lower elevations extend the agricultural frontier. Strategies to address these problems include more environmentally benign agricultural technologies in fragile areas,hydroponic bucket intensified production in less-fragile areas to reduce pressure on more fragile areas, and raising income-earning potential through less land-intensive activities. A key is to alter human behavior. Adaptive management processes show promise as means of altering behavior to attain agreed- upon goals. A watershed approach to natural resource management has been tried in different settings with varying degrees of success. Watersheds define natural linkages between human populations and their environments . Watershed management is consistent with decentralized governance, which is gaining favor in Andean countries . However, modern watershed management techniques require digitized data that are of limited availability in high mountain areas, and watershed management often requires the cooperation of competing and overlapping levels of local and regional government. A watershed management approach faces many challenges. Any watershed approach must begin with the notion that watershed-level outcomes are products of individual decisions on fields spread across the catchment’s area. These decisions reflect household livelihood strategies of allocating their physical, human, natural, and other assets to earn livings, increase well-being, and manage multiple risks . Individual decisions have compound effects and impacts on aggregate economic and environmental outcomes result from a complex mosaic of economic, social, and physical networks that characterize all water-sheds. The driving factor is human decision making. Effective management must identify mechanisms for changing human activities and introduce options to raise incomes while mitigating negative environmental consequences. Integrated adaptive watershed management is a relatively new concept in Ecuador, but it provides hope that some environmental problems can be addressed through consensus building.

The 1970s-era focus of tops-down watershed management has evolved over time and newer concepts recognize the holistic nature of the relationship between land use, agricultural production, natural re- source conservation, and reduction of contaminants. It also recognizes that watershed outcomes result from human decisions . Our integrated watershed management program in the Chimbo sub-watershed in Bolivar Province is guided by four concepts: 1) Agricultural intensification can be consistent with sustainable natural resource management ; 2) Sustainable agricultural practices can contribute to preservation of bio-diversity ; 3) Increased bio-diversity can contribute to household food security by diversifying diets and reducing risks of crop failure ; and 4) Even the poorest of the poor are interested in and capable of adopting environmentally friendly technologies . Evidence shows that these arguments are valid in the Ecuadorean highlands . Ecuador’s National Autonomous Agricultural Research Institute  has engaged farmers in the Chimbo for many years and has found farmers to be receptive to solutions to natural re- source problems . Over time, INIAP has created important strategic alliances and generated broad support for integrated adaptive watershed management. INIAP now combines an integrated adaptive management approach with a livelihoods focus, recognizing that any effort to improve environmental conditions must also create economic space for conservation actions. The objectives of this paper are to describe the adaptive watershed management process, obstacles overcome during its implementation, and provide a preliminary assessment of program impacts. We describe the site, present our research methods, and identify specific innovations attributable to the research. We then discuss research findings with respect to returns to management practices and describe how the recommended practices have spread over time. The paper concludes by discussing lessons learned and how the adaptive management process can be applied to other areas. The program was structured around an adaptive water- shed management conceptual framework. This frame- work begins with the watershed as a geographic entity and recognizes that actors within the watershed make decisions that affect the entire watershed. The adaptive management framework is well-known  but has rarely been applied in a developing country context. It begins with an assessment of conditions and identification of problems faced by actors in the watershed. Stakeholders are engaged in goal-setting, and research is designed to address obstacles to achieving goals. Re- search findings are then used in a participatory process with stakeholders to produce watershed plans. These plans are implemented and outcomes are monitored. Monitoring could lead to changes in plans over time, and the adaptive cycle begins again.

We introduce two innovations to this framework: Plans are adapted on a regular basis as the research base and acceptance of it grows, and the land-use plans include consideration of household decision making and how decisions create impact across multiple systems within the watershed. The household decision process reflects livelihood choices. A livelihood refers to the capabilities, assets , stackable planters and activities required for a means of living , or how labor, land, and other assets are distributed among productive and reproductive activities. The decision to adopt a livelihood is based on the household asset base; available alternatives; institutional, policy, and social environments; access to information; and the natural environment. Asset allocation decisions have effects on household wellbeing, the ability to save and invest, and the natural environment. For example, adoption of a maize technology affects labor and land allocations, income, risk exposure, and may affect erosion, runoff, and future soil quality. All these outcomes were identified as important during implementation of the adaptive management process. The management program was built on four dimensions: communication, coordination, compromise and co- operation. The project facilitated movement along these dimensions through regular community meetings and a process of participatory research. Interactions helped generate consensus about key problems and solutions most likely to be successful. Our assessment began with a participatory rural appraisal  to identify productive activities, assets, and perceptions about environmental conditions. The PRA was followed by a statistically representative house- hold survey that collected information from 286 families. The survey covered household demographics, assets, sources of income, agricultural practices and others. These data were used to categorize households into livelihood typologies and conduct analysis of household decision making processes. Survey observations were georeferenced, which allowed us to overlay survey information with agroecological, soils, infrastructure and other information in a GIS. The GIS was used to create thematic maps for the community engagement process, and to inform and structure research. Emphasis was placed on identifying alternatives and evaluating them through hands-on research. For example, conversion of lands to permanent pasture or reversion to woodlands was not initially viewed as desirable. An assessment of biodiversity, together with research on alter- natives to reduce erosion on productive lands, helped convince stakeholders that a combination of reversion together with adoption of erosion control practices in the most erosion-sensitive areas would help meet objectives about which consensus had been reached. Similar re- search efforts were undertaken to help find more effective soil fertility management regimes, more environmentally benign pest control methods, etc. Livelihoods and their diversity: The baseline survey and information from the PRA were used to identify livelihood clusters. A quantitative hierarchical  clustering method  was combined with expert opinion to create these clusters. The livelihood clusters can be thought of as groupings of households with similar asset bases and different means of combining them to earn incomes. Some clusters were exclusively agriculture, others rely on off-farm incomes, and others on remittances from outside the area . Water quality analysis: Early in the process, stake- holders decided that water quality should be monitored. Monitoring results were used to evaluate impacts of land-use changes on water quality. We measured bio- indicators , physical-chemical com- positions, and micro-biological parameters . This monitoring helped engage community members and built ownership of the research. Key macro-invertebrates were identified in exercises with local school children during 2006 and 2007; subsequent monitoring was incorporated into the local curriculum .

Monthly chemical analysis begins with samples being extracted by community members and sent to Quito for detailed analysis. Nitrate, phosphorus, total solids, temperature, pH, conductivity, fecal coliform, and total coliform are all measured. Data on rainfall and stream flows are being collected and used to calibrate our watershed models . Biodiversity assessment: The PRA indicated that stake- holders were not aware of biodiversity or its importance. Early on, an assessment activity evaluated the richness and diversity of plant and animal species. The focus was on remaining natural woodlands and areas where water recharge occurs . The assessment incorporated local knowledge about the value, uses and abundance of native plant and animal species. Stakeholders helped transect the study area, and collect photographic and physical evidence. Evidence was classified and categorized at the National Herbarium in Quito. Strategic transects were also undertaken in remnant woodlands and areas of high vulnerability . Physical and environmental vulnerability: We stratified our on-farm agronomic research  according to an index of physical vulnerability which included six parameters: slope, vegetative coverage, rain- fall frequency and intensity, wind intensity, seasonal variability and soil texture. These indicators were selected following focus group discussions with technicians and local farmers. The index takes a value between 0 and 1, with 0 signifying no vulnerability and 1 representing areas of extreme vulnerability. The index was especially useful in helping producers understand linkages between farming practices, soil loss, and subsequent off-farm damages. Farmers had their parcels classified and the index values and information on actual land use were incorporated into the GIS. This information was used to identify environmental hot-spots and to inform subsequent land use plans. Design of environmentally friendly alternatives: The program selected 13 production systems for research on more sustainable practices. All the practices were consistent with livelihood clusters. Illangama systems revolved around a well-established potato-dairy rotation, while in Alumbre maize-beans predominate . Trials were established on pilot farms to evaluate impacts on income, labor use, environmental degradation, etc. of these practices. Best Management Practices  were targeted for implementation in high-vulnerability areas .The micro-watersheds are distinguished by major differences in flora biodiversity. We identified around 162 tree and bush species in the area. In Illangama and Alumbre we identified 13 and 32 species, respectively, unique to that micro-watershed. Only 17 families of species were common to both micro-watersheds. Biodiversity is far richer in Alumbre, where the warmer climate is more conducive to species diversification.

Thirty years ago there were thousands of seed companies in the world, most of which were small and family owned. To-day, the top six global seed companies control almost 50% of the commercial seed trade . Some of these companies belong to worldwide corporations that are also involved with pesticides and biotechnology. The vegetables attracting the most breeding attention vary considerably between small and huge seed companies/ corporations. In large international companies the breeding activity is more diverse, but is concentrated on the more economically important crops. In these companies, marker assisted selection  has become an integral component of many commercial vegetable breeding programs . The initial aim of molecular breeding has been to supplement conventional methods with faster and more efficient breeding through MAS or marker-assisted back crossing . Molecular markers that are closely linked to the trait of inter-est may be identified and applied in gene pyramiding, facilitating introgression of desirable traits into cultivars, early selection, etc. For more complex traits conferred by multigenic traits, QTL analysis has been carried out. Markers bring additional value when they can be used to accelerate the development of new improved vegetable cultivars.

Developmental cycles of commercial hybrid cultivars range between 5 and 12 years. Besides breeding lines necessary for creating hybrid seed need to be re-fined for specific markets. All these high significant R&D investments make commercial vegetable breeding expensive. A greater desire for year-round availability of vegetables has had a significant impact on seed companies, blueberry grow pot requiring full year-round production and consequently a global presence. Unlike for instance agrochemicals ‘‘where one size fits all’’, seed cultivars need to be adapted and differentiated to suit the agronomic needs of the respective region where the vegetable is grown. Active international trade and overseas vegetable seed production by contract is common in many countries. Each multinational company vies to provide better vegetable seeds to compete with domestic seed producers. In China, whose seed market is estimated to be valued at more than US$1.4 billion, the increased recognition of new and high-yielding hybrid cultivars has encouraged the local development of a large number of vegetable seed producers and distributors. Four types of vegetable seed producers were established: public seed companies, re-search institutes, foreign seed companies, and local seed companies. Private seed companies have been expanding rapidly in recent years and there are now thousands of small firms. Some companies have started to breed their own cultivars and establish marketing networks. They play a strong role in the Chinese vegetable seed industry. About 60 foreign seed companies have opened branch companies or stations in China. Most of them not only sell their vegetable seeds but also have established breeding stations. In other southeastern Asian countries such as India, Indonesia, Vietnam and Malaysia, the percentage of hybrid vegetable cultivars is lower than in China, and so a large expansion of seed companies has not yet occurred. While there has been rapid growth in the seed markets of developing countries due to a shift away from farm saved seed, the seed markets in developed countries, particularly those of Europe and Japan are stagnant.

In Europe and the United States, the seed industry has been concentrated and is largely in the hands of large corporations and many small firms are closing . Vegetable breeding strategy and targets are dependent on market trends. Successful breeders anticipate changes in the market by developing new cultivars that are ready to be released to the growers when their demand in-creases. Therefore, it will be interesting to see how breeding companies react to changes in vegetable consumption and to evaluate the potential influence that the vegetable market and growing systems may have on breeding targets and priorities. As stated biodiversity is the basis for plant breeding. Selection is impossible without diversity and new cultivars for farmers and growers cannot be developed with-out it. This makes access to this variation essential for breeders. As referred above, about one half  of the total number of vegetables cultivated in the world get commercial breeding attention by seed companies and, of those, only 17% are in large scale breeding programs, fostering a need for serious attention to maintenance of vegetable crop biodiversity. There has been a severe decline in the vegetable cultivar genetic base, as evidenced by the significant reduction, especially within the last 50 years, in the number and range of vegetable cultivars grown. During this period vegetable genetic diversity has been eroding all over the world and vegetable genetic resources are disappearing, on a global scale, at an un-precedented rate of 1.5% 2% perannum.Widespread adoption of simplified vegetable systems with low genetic diversity carries a variety of risks including food insecurity. In the short term, such systems risk potential crop failure. In the longer term, they en-courage the reduction of the broad genetic base that con-tributes to high yields, quality traits, disease and pest resistance, etc. and thus compromise the future genetic health of vegetables.

Especially prominent among the ‘‘enemies’’ of genetic diversity are the commercial markets and economic social pressures that have influenced breeding practices that promote uniformity, encouraging extensive cultiva-tion of preferred improved and hybrid vegetable cultivars with insufficient diversity. In addition, globalization has stimulated the consolidation of vegetable seed companies into huge corporations and the decline of small seed companies that serve local and regional markets. In con-sequence some vegetable breeding programs have been merged or eliminated to reduce costs. Thus, fewer and fewer companies/corporations are making critical decisions about the vegetable research agenda, and the future of vegetables worldwide. Inevitably, two things will happen. There will be fewer vegetable breeders in the future and growers will be dependent on a narrower genetic background that could contribute in the near future to food insecurity for poor growers and consumers. Also, with the advent of genetic engineering, these huge seed corporations are also assuming ownership of a vast array of living organisms and biological processes. Of equal concern are expanded uses of legal mechanisms, such as patents and plant breeder’s rights that are removing vegetable plant germplasm from general public use . Intellectual property rights for plants was in-tended as a defensive mechanism to prevent the loss of invented cultivars to competitors. However, with the more stringent enforcement of plant breeding rights, hydroponic bucket and particularly with the application of the utility patent law in the United States to protect all forms of an innovation, this has become an offensive weapon to stifle competition and inhibit the flow of germplasm and information. This can have serious implications for the future conservation of vegetable genetic resources and for world food security . Some land races and old open-pollinated cultivars of vegetables have existed for long periods outside the commercial and professional plant breeding circles be-cause they have been kept alive within communities by succeeding generations of seed savers. Unfortunately, active seed savers tend to be more and more a minority among the millions of vegetable growers. Due to the demand of commercial markets and the professionalization of the sector, many growers are no longer saving seeds. This is an additional threat to genetic diversity. So continued survival of landraces and open-pollinated cultivars of vegetables depends largely on popular interest and initiative as well as preservation in gene banks. We should be alerted and concerned about the loss of biodiversity in vegetables and about this impact on food security. Vegetable growers have an important role in conserving and using vegetable biodiversity.

The future of world food security depends not just on stored vegetable genes, but also on the people who use and maintain crop genetic diversity on a daily basis. In the long run, the conservation of plant genetic diversity depends not only on a small number of institutional plant breeders and seed banks, but also on the vast number of growers who select, improve, and use vegetable diversity, especially in marginal farming environments. That is why we should be also alerted and particularly alarmed by the current trend to use improved and hybrid vegetable cultivars exclusively. Growers do not just save seeds, they are plant breeders who are constantly adapting their vegetable crops to specific farming conditions and needs. For over 300 vegetable generations, vegetable growers have been selecting seeds and adapting their plants for local use. This genetic biodiversity is the key to maintaining and improving the world’s food security and nutrition. No plant breeder or genetic engineer starts from scratch when developing a new cultivar of tomato, pepper, cabbage or lettuce. They are building on the accumulated success of generations of growers, who have selected and improved vegetable seeds for thousands of years. If poor small-scale growers in marginal areas stop saving seeds, we will lose genetic diversity. Growers will lose the means to select and adapt vegetable crops to their unique farming conditions, which are characterized by low external inputs. Hybrid seed technology is designed to prevent growers from saving seed from their harvest, thus forcing them to return to the commercial seed market every year. Hybrid vegetable seeds alone, and used globally, can be a dead-end to biodiversity. If growers abandon completely their traditional vegetable landraces in the process of adopting only hybrids, crop genetic diversity achieved over centuries will be lost forever. Many agronomic benefits will be lost to worldwide vegetable growers and thus to consumers. The exclusive adoption of hybrid cultivars in marginal areas may restrict the vegetable producing capacity of farmers, it will destroy biodiversity, and it may contribute in the long-term to food insecurity. There is a growing awareness world-wide about the need to conserve plant germplasm for the use of future generations. Consequently, considerable media attention has been given to the creation of the Svalbard global seed vault and the related storage of seeds of many economically-important crops . However, the lower “status” of most of vegetable crops means that they are not treated with the same degree of priority and concern. Furthermore, the fact that many vegetable crops of comercial and horticultural significance are vegetatively propagated and not seed propagated restricts the options for their conservation other than through relatively ex-pensive live plant collections. There are also considerable ongoing efforts by national governments and international organizations to preserve plant vegetable germplasm in gene banks. This is a valuable but static approach, as further evolutionary changes and improvements will not occur until the seeds are planted. It is also an activity that relies heavily on continued political stability and support, including sustained governmental funding. Active and positive connections between the private breeding sector and large-scale gene banks are required to avoid possible conflict involving breeders’ rights and gene preservation.

The diversity of crop species will be promoted by the maintenance of crop gene banks by governments and non-governmental organizations, the continued use of diverse sources by plant breeders, especially in the public sector, and by the use of local cultivars and landraces by farmers. Breeders play a key role in determining what we eat, since the plant cultivars they develop begin the dietary food chain. There are considerably fewer vegetable plant breeding positions than in field crops, and vegetable breeders are often required to be knowledgeable about a more diverse group of crops. Vegetable crops include many different crops morphotypes with great diversity within. So careful consideration must be given to the type of graduate education appropriate for preparing new vegetable breeders, as well as continuing education to keep them current and productive. Since many breeders will work on different vegetable crops during a career, how can they be prepared for inevitable change, the types of which are difficult to imagine? Who would have predicted in 1990 that a mere 20 years later, many plant genomes are sequenced and DNA-based selection methods linked with phenotypic selection and electronic data handling are becoming standard practice? Few of the vegetabe plant breeders beginning their careers two decades ago had much knowledge about and experience with DNA technology, but in order to be productive and competitive today they have had to learn about and integrate new technology and methods. There is no reason to suppose that changes will be any less dramatic for future vegetable breeders. As with other courses of study, plant breeding graduate education must strike a balance between broad preparation and specialization. The number of vegetable breeders is small compared to other crops, therefore few if any graduate programs will be designated solely for vegetable. So too, limited number of university faculty working on vegetable crops will make it challenging to assemble a critical mass of faculty with research and teaching appointments and interest in a range of vegetable crop areas. Some pertinent questions for preparation of vegetable breeders should include: i) what types of new positions will be available in vegetable crop breeding; ii) what level of formal education will be appropriate; iii) how should preparation differ for global careers that may be in developed and developing countries/regions; iv) what skills will be needed for success; v) what vegetable crops should graduates be knowledgeable about; vi) are there educational knowledge, experience and skills that differ for horticultural vs. other agronomic crops; vii) what is needed to prepare vegetable breeders for career changes among different vegetable crops; and viii) what continuing education should be available for practicing breeders throughout their careers.

The majority of exports come from countries with preferred trade status under the Lomé Convention. For instance, in 2000, Kenya was the single largest supplier of green beans to the European Union, followed by Ethiopia, South Africa, and Switzerland. Kenya captured 53% of the total traded value. Côte d’Ivoire was the second largest supplier of green onions and shallots to the European Union, after New Zealand, capturing 16% of the total traded value . Although within this same period, many world governments have increased the levels of protectionism against imported produce or at least have slowed down the opening of their markets to increased exposure to imports. Still, compared to overall exports of agricultural products, the importance of vegetable exports remains minor, comprising less than 10% of the total value. However,nft hydroponic system in recent years the share has been rising and it is projected to continue to rise faster than other agricultural products.

During the 1990s, the value of fresh and processed vegetables imported by the European Union surpassed all other categories.In this situation many vegetable growers are eager to produce value-added horticultural crops as compared to field crops, and to obtain higher yields of high-quality products. International supermarket chains and large processors are becoming the main buyers of exported fresh vegetables  and small-scale growers worldwide need to be trained and organized to meet the challenge of sup-plying these international players. The major constraints to the participation of small-scale growers in international vegetable exports are the increased awareness that food quality and safety is receiving in the food trade and as well, an expansion in the number of non-tariff measures that developed countries apply to vegetable products . Sanitary issues refer to ensuring a safe food supply for consumers, while phytosanitary issues concern the protection of domestic crops from imported pests and diseases. The Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement  of the World Trade Organization specifies that countries can pursue their own levels of food safety standards.

However SPS issues are sometimes used as a protectionist tool against imports since multilateral trade agreements have reduced the ability to protect domestic production with tariffs and quotas.Thus exporters from less developed countries must be provided with training opportunities and information access on how to produce and supply safe products to developed countries. Traceability, phytosanitary, infrastructure, and productivity issues will continue to be a barrier for participation in the vegetable trade for most of the developing world. Application of agricultural chemicals is often poorly regulated, and industrial pollutants are common hazards in the soil, water, and air of developing countries. In the future, hydroponic nft system the inability of these countries to meet increasingly strict phytosanitary and traceability requirements for food products will constrict exports to developed countries . Small- scale growers and processors in developing countries will thus have to learn to supply safe products with traceability labels, if their participation in global trade is to continue and to expand. Technologies for safe and environmentally friendly vegetable production as well as capacity building should therefore gain particular attention for training to enable small-scale growers to partici-pate in vegetable production for international markets .

Food and nutritional security involves securing the whole food chain from production through to consumption. Horticulturists traditionally have focused on production, but issues such as equitable access to food and ensuring a balanced diet increasingly demand attention. Those with the least power and already substantially imbalanced diets are most affected by climate change and limited resources.We are all concerned by what we eat, and securing the food chain to provide a balanced diet , can point us toward an alternative way of viewing the role of horticulturists in a warming world. Vegetable breeding has to address and satisfy the needs of both the consumer and the grower. The general objectives for growers are good yield, disease and pest resistance, uniformity, and abiotic stress resistance. Objectives for consumers are quality, appearance, shelf life, taste, and nutritional value. Quality in vegetable crops, in contrast to field crops, is often more important than yield. For growers to survive, cultivars must be accepted by the market. Thus, color, appearance, taste, and shape are usually more important than productivity. For example, tomatoes to be used either fresh or in processing must have distinct quality characteristics.

The data presented in Table 3reveals that, Shannon index values of trees was higher  on northern aspect as compared to southern aspect  under agri-horticulture system. Contrary to this, the Simpson index  values of trees were found to be highest  on southern aspect. The higher species richness value  was recorded in northern aspect. The slightly higher equitability  was observed in southern aspect of agri-horticulture systems. Beta diversity was higher  on southern aspect while it was lower  on northern aspect of agri-horticulture system. Among the shrubs the higher diversity  and species richness  was ob-served in the southern aspect whereas higher Simpson Index , ebb and flow bench equitability  and beta diversity  was recorded in northern aspect . The tree diversity and species richness was higher on northern aspect as compared to southern aspect under agri-horticulture system whereas concentration of tree species was found to be higher on southern aspect. In contrarily the shrubs occupied higher diversity and species richness in the present study on the southern aspect under agri-horticulture system .

The diversity parameters of these agroforestry systems are comparable with the diversity indices reported by different workers for other regions in agroforestry and non-agroforestry systems . In an experiment  reported the Shannon-Weaver index  values from 0.41 to 2.31, concentration of dominance from 0.38 to 1.00 in the Thar desert under natural silvipastoral system which are higher than the present study. The Simpson Index for the home garden of Kerala in South India varied 0.44 to 0.86  which is quite high than the present study. In the present study, the higher diversity values on northern aspects may be due to the higher moisture con-tent and low insolation rates as compared to southern aspects, which receive the Sun rays in later part of the day, when the atmosphere is sufficiently warmed.The higher tree diversity in northern aspect was attributed to the presence of higher number of species , while the higher concentration of dominance in southern aspect, was due to the high relative proportion of few fruit species in these systems. The higher beta diversity in the southern aspect represented the higher niche diversification compared to northern aspect under agri-horticulture system.

The lower number of shrubs was found on north- ern aspect which might be due to higher slope in northern aspect under agri-horticulture systems. The tree canopy cover was higher on the northern aspect, which interrupted the growth and development of shrubs and may be another reason for the lower occurrence of shrubs.  Vegetables are grown worldwide in almost 200 countries and make up a major portion of the diet of humans in many parts of the world and play a significant role in human nutrition,4x8ft rolling benches especially as sources of vitamins , minerals, dietary fiber and phytochemicals . They can be also a major source of protein for the poor. Vegetables in the daily diet have been strongly associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health, good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer . Low vegetable intake, in unbalanced diets, has been estimated to cause about 31% of ischaemic heart disease and 11% of stroke worldwide. The International Agency for Research on Cancer  estimates that the preventable percentage of cancer due to such diets ranges from 5% 12% for all cancers, and 20% 30% for upper gastrointestinal tract cancers.

Some phyto-chemicals of vegetables are strong antioxidants and are thought to reduce the risk of chronic disease by protecting against free-radical damage, by modifying metabolic activation and detoxification of carcinogens, or even influencing processes that alter the course of tumor cells . “Hid-den hunger” or micronutrient and vitamin deficiencies is a pernicious problem around the world that is caused by a lack of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A, iodine and iron in the human diet. It affects the health of be-tween 2 and 3.5 billion people in the developing world and increases the risk of illness or death from infectious diseases and children do not develop to their full physical or mental potential . In much of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, dietary deficiencies of iron and vitamin A are major health problems, resulting in millions of deaths each year. Iron deficiency anemia is one of the world’s most prevalent dietary deficiencies. In a recent report on the world nutrition situation, the United Nations  estimated that 4 to 5 billion people are affected by iron deficiency anemia, with the most severe incidence in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Vanda bicoloris a horticultural important orchid found in North Eastern region of India especially in Nagaland. The species is considered to be vulnerable and demands efforts for conservation. Present study was undertaken to develop a distribution prediction model and climate suitability model for conservation of the species.Present study was aimed to bring out the environmental data within which the target species can persist and the geographical area where these set of environmental conditions are offered. Those areas offering similar climatic set as that of the training site are potential sites for their reintroduction taking into consideration the land-use pattern and biotic interaction in defining the species prevalence in the predicted regions as defined by Pearson and Dawson.Past studies have shown that the predictive performance decreases significantly when samples size are low  and in our study we investigated the performance of the models developed using low sample size using Vanda bicolor a rare orchid species as the target species.

To enable the assessment of the prediction ability of the model developed using small sample size we employed the Jackknife of Maximum Entropy. Vanda bicolor Griff. is a rare epiphytic orchid belonging to the genus Vanda under family-Orchidaceae, the plant has leafy stem enveloped almost fully covered by leaf sheaths and each with oblong, curved, and with little twisting in the middle, blueberry grow pot apically obliquely bilobed, each lobe tridentate leaves. Vanda bicolor flowers between March to June and inflorescence axillary, glabrous flowers white-purplish, mottled above, violet tinged beneath, with floral size of 4 6 cm. The plant is found mostly in Tropical Wet evergreen forest, tropical Semi Evergreen forest and Sub-tropical broad leaved wet hill forest, This orchidh as an endemic distribution restricted to Indo-Burma regions of India Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Sikkim; Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal . In the present study only 4 occurrence points were used to develop the model, all presence points are geo-referenced from primary ground surveys using GPS.The occurrence points are subjected to quality test with respect to and their positional accuracy was ascertained through Google earth, duplicates are identified and removed thus maintaining only one point within 1×1 Km2 to avoid sampling bias which would otherwise favor the climatic of those sites where sampling is highly concentrated.

As the number of presence points in below 20 1.5 ×Inter quartile range  method of identifying outliers is applied to check for outliers based on climate data developed from the environmental data obtained from World Clim Website at 30”. All climate data are cross checked for resolution accuracy and corrected to 30” pixel resolution.19 bio-climatic variables of zone 29 was obtained from World Clim at 30” pixel resolution, which consist of an interpolated datasets of temperature and precipitation, which are of primary importance for the plant to thrive and reproduce successfully at a particular area.All modeling works was carried out using MAXENT Version 3.3.3 K as our works are based on presence points only and has low sample size . MAXENT is designed to efficiently handle small sample size; all visualization was done in DIVA GIS 7.5.0, hydroponic bucket whereas all mapping works was carried out using ARC GIS 9.3.The model was developed using Jacknifing method , For validating model robustness, 12 replicated model runs was executed with a threshold rule of 10percentile training presence and employed cross validation technique for dividing the samples into replicate folds and using as test data all other parameters were kept at default. The Area under Curve  was graded according to.

The distribution potential of the model was classified into very low , low , medium , high  and very high  and basing on the prediction model the target plant was introduced in all the different prediction threshold to study the response of the plant in the different predicted areas. The model calibration gives a test AUC of 0.984, with a standard deviation of0.004. The AUC ranges from 0.5 for models that are no better than random to1.0 for models with perfect predictive ability . The AUC testis derived from the Receiver Operating Characteristic  Curve. The ROC curve thus describes the relationship between the proportion of observed presences correctly predicted  and the proportion of observed absences incorrectly predicted . Thus, an AUC value of 0.7 means the probability is 0.7 that a record selected at random from the set of presences will have a predicted value greater than a record selected at random from the set of absences. In the present study estimates of relative contributions of the environmental variables to the MAXENT model showed that Bio18 contributed the maximum  followed by Bio13 and contributing 16.2 and 9.4% .

The results of the experiments indicate a positive influence of the applied bioproducts on root growth characteristicsand the degree of mycorrhizal association in the roots of strawberry plants of the cultivars Elsanta andElkat. The biopreparations: BioFeed Quality, BioFeed Amin, Vinassa and Florovit Eko increased the intensityof root growth in strawberry plants in comparison with the control plants fertilizedwith NPK . Application of BioFeed Quality contributed to a six-fold increase in rootlength, and a seven-fold increase in root surface area. Compared to NPK fertilization, application of the preparationBioFeed Amin resulted in an eight-fold increase in root volume, and the biofertilizer Vinassa increased asmuch as 24-fold the number of root tips in Elkat strawberry plants. The number of root tips in Elsanta plants fertilizedwith the biofertilizer Florovit Eko increased three-fold in relation to the roots of plants fertilized withNPK. Compared to the roots of the strawberry cultivar Elsanta,4×8 flood tray the cultivar Elkat was characterized by longerroots, with a larger diameter, volume and surface area, and a greater number of root tips.

Similar results on thebeneficial effects of the same bioproducts on the growth of strawberry plants of the cultivar Elsanta in a greenhouseexperiment had been obtained by Sas Paszt et al. . On the basis of these results it can be concludedthat Micosat, Humus UP, manure, and Vinassa have a beneficial effect on root growth characteristics as comparedto control plants fertilized with NPK. Also Malusa et al. , in a greenhouse experiment, had reported apositive influence of fertilization with biopreparations on root growth in three varieties of strawberry plants.The tested biopreparations also had a positive influence on the degree of mycorrhizal association and thenumber of AMF spores obtained from the rhizosphere soil of strawberry plants. Micosat F and Humus UP contributed to a five-fold increase in mycorrhizal frequency, while the preparation Micosat F and manure increasedfrom two to four times the number of spores in the rhizosphere soil of strawberry plants .In the rhizospheresoil of Elkat strawberry plants, a greater number of spores was observed than in the soil collected from under theplants of the cultivar Elsanta. Sas Paszt et al. , in a greenhouse experiment, had reported similar results forElsanta plants.

They observed that the preparations Micosat F and Humus UP increased twenty-fold the degreeof mycorrhizal association in the roots, and Micosat F and BioFeed Amin contributed to the increase in thenumber of spores of AMF in the rhizosphere of strawberry plants. Malusa et al.  had found that inoculationof the roots of strawberry plants with the preparation Micosat F significantly increased the number of spores inthe rhizosphere of the strawberry cultivars in the study.The applied biopreparations such as Humus UP, BioFeed Amin and Florovit Eko contributed to a doubling ofthe total number of bacteria and filamentous fungi in the rhizosphere soil of Elsanta and Elkat strawberry plantscompared to NPK fertilization . The soil from the root zone of Elsanta plants was characterized by agreater number of bacteria and filamentous fungi than the rhizosphere soil collected from under the plants of thecultivar Elkat. Similar results were obtained by Ding et al. , who conducted an assessment of rhizospherebacteria and the effects of biofertilizers in reducing bacterial wilt in potatoes under greenhouse conditions.They showed that PGPR 1 increased three times the overall number of microorganisms and the number of actinomycetes,ebb flow tray while the application of PGPR 2 resulted in a doubling of the total number of fungi and the total numberof azotobacter bacteria in the soil.

Sas Paszt et al. examined the effects of biostimulators on plant growth and crop size and quality instrawberry plants of the cultivars Elsanta and Honeoye. Their results suggest that the use of the preparation Vinassaand BioFeed Amin, and the biopreparations Humus UP and Humus Active + Aktywit PM improved theyield and weight of strawberry fruit, and also the green colour of the leaves of strawberry plants, compared tocontrol plants. The best yields and the heaviest fruits were produced by strawberry plants of the cultivar Elsantaas a result of foliar spraying with the preparation Vinassa. The focus on business sustainability rather than generic aspects of sustainabilityhas attracted more attention to sustainability in all sectors including food andhorticulture. Unlike other industries, food sector has received more public attentionin regard to sustainability . This led to increased food costs. Sustainability issues are complex by nature .